Транскрипция и правила чтения

Изучая английский язык, сталкиваешься с потрясающим явлением – необходимостью выучить три языка в одном: устный, письменный и транскрипцию - это запись звучания буквы или слова в виде последовательности специальных фонетических символов.

Для чего существует такое сложное понятие как транскрипция и нужно ли ее учить (зная о наличие электронных или он-лайн словарей, которые воспроизводят звучание слова)?

Вот несколько веских доводов в пользу знания английской транскрипции:

1. Транскрипция в английском языке была создана для помощи в чтении слов (так как многие слова читаются и произносятся зачастую не так, как пишутся: night[naɪ t] daughter['dɔ: tə ] stomach['stʌ mə k]). А выучить правила чтения английских слов – это не значит научиться читать абсолютно правильно, так как на каждое правило существует больше примеров исключения, чем примеров правильного прочтения.

2. Ударение в английском языке отмечается в британских словарях именно в транскрипции. При этом нужно учитывать, что от правильности постановки ударения может измениться и сам смысл слова:

content
['kɔ ntent] содержание, суть
[kə n'tent] удовлетворённость, довольство

compact
[kə m'pæ kt] компактный; имеющий оптимальную форму
['kɔ mpæ kt] косметичка; пудреница (для пудры и румян)

3. Чтение транскрипционных знаков помогает вам запомнить чтение слова, так как здесь в отличие от электронного восприятия (слуховая память), действует зрительная память, которая у многих людей развита лучше.

4. Знаки, используемые в системе транскрибирования, являются международными, их может понять любой изучающий английский язык вне зависимости от его национальности. Для объяснения данной схемы нужно пару дней, а умение пользоваться ей останется с вами на всю жизнь и поможет вам в изучении английского языка.

5. Английские слова имеют несколько типов слогов. Однако, для понимания всей системы, необходимо запомнить и различать следующие два типа: открытый и закрытый.

Открытый слог оканчивается на гласную: game, like, stone - гласная буква в слове читается так же, как и в алфавите.

Закрытый слог оканчивается на согласную: pen, cat, bus - гласная буква в слоге даёт иной звук.

Ударение в транскрипции и словах обозначается вертикальной чёрточкой перед ударным слогом.

 

Vowels – Гласные
Phonetic Symbol	Rules and examples – Правила и примеры	Примерное произношение
	возникает в следующих буквосочетаниях: e + e (всегда): meet [ mi: t ], deep [di: p ]; буква e в открытом слоге: tree [ tri: ], Steve [ sti: v ]; в буквосочетании e + a: meat [ mi: t ], beam [ bi: m ] Примечание: это же буквосочетание (ea) часто даёт звук [ e ]	и (долгий)
	обычно даёт буква i в закрытом слоге: hit [ hit ], kill [ kil ] а также буква y в закрытом слоге: gym [ d3im ], cylinder [ ´ silində ] Примечание: эти же буквы в открытом слоге дают звук [ ai ]	и
	обычно даёт буква a в закрытом слоге: flag [ flæ g ], married [ ´ mæ rid ]	э
	возникает в следующих буквосочетаниях: a + r: dark [ da: k ], farm [ fa: m ] (см. примечание) регулярно буква a в закрытом слоге: last [ la: st ], father [ fa: ð ə ] - поэтому необходимо сверяться со словарём, т.к. a в закрытом слоге традиционно даёт звук [ æ ] как в cat [ kæ t ]; согласная + alm также стабильно даёт этот звук: palm [ pa: m ], calm [ ka: m ] Примечание: очень редко a + r даёт звук [ o: ] warm [ wo: m ]; Редко: salmon [ sæ mə n ]	а (долгий)
	возникает в следующих буквосочетаниях: o + r: corn [ ko: n ], fortress [ ´ fo: trə s ], more [ mo: ] почти всегда в a + u: fauna [ ´ fo: nə ], taunt [ to: nt ]; исключение составляют лишь несколько слов, например, aunt Согласная (кроме w) + a + w: dawn [ do: n ], hawk [ ho: k ]. всегда в буквосочетании a + ll: tall [ to: l ], small [ smo: l ] Буквосочетание a + ld (lk) также даёт этот звук: bald [ bo: ld ], talk [ to: k ] Нечасто, но можно встретить буквосочетание ou + r, дающее этот звук: pour [ po: ], mourn [mo: n ].	о (долгий)
	put, foot, could, butcher, woman	у
	долгота этого звука в большинстве случаев варьируется по историческим причинам, нежели по орфографическим. То есть для каждого слова она определяется индивидуально. Эта разница в долготе не несёт огромной смыслоразличительной нагрузки, как в других звуках. И в устной речи её не нужно специально подчёркивать. Данный звук возникает в следующих случаях: всегда o+o: foot [ fut ], boot [ bu: t ], took [ tuk ], moon [ mu: n ] после pu в закрытом слоге иногда даёт краткий вариант: put [ put ], push [ pu∫ ] (предыдущая буква всегда p) - (см. примечание) ou + согласная: could [ ku: d ], wound [ wu: nd ] ( но подобные случаи не часты). r + u+ согласная + гласная: prune [ pru: n ], rumour [ ru: mə ] Примечание: Но в подобных же случаях с другими согласными u почти всегда даёт звук [ Λ ]: cut [ kΛ t ], plus [ plΛ s ], punch [ pΛ nt∫ ]	у (долгий)
	обычно даёт буква u в закрытом слоге: dust [ dΛ st ], Sunday [ ´ sΛ ndei ]. А также: ouble: double [ dΛ bl ], trouble [ trΛ bl ] ove: glove [ glΛ v ], dove [ dΛ v ] Примечание: но встречаются и исключения: move [ mu: v ], flood [ flΛ d ], blood [ blΛ d ]	а
	возникает в закрытых слогах при следующих буквосочетаниях: всегда i /e /u + r (в закрытом слоге): skirt [ skε: t ], person [ pε: sə n ] turn [ tε: n ], burst [ bε: st ] - (см. примечание) ea + r: pearl [ pε: l ], learn [ lε: n ] Примечание: в отдельных случаях сочетание o + r после w даёт этот звук: word [ wε: d ], work [ wε: k ]	мягк. о (как в лён)
	Нейтральный звук дают большинство неударных гласных\сочетаний гласных: famous [ feimə s ], computer [ kə mpju: tə ]	э
	обычно даёт буква e в закрытом слоге: get [ get ], vet [ vet ] а также буквосочетание ea: dead [ ded ], pleasure [ ´ ple3ə ] Примечание: это же буквосочетание часто даёт звук [ i: ]	э
	обычно даёт буква o в закрытом слоге: pot [ pot ], lottery [ ´ lotə ri ], а также буква a в закрытом слоге после w: wasp [ wosp ], swan [ swon ]	о
Consonants - Согласные звуки
Phonetic Symbol	Examples - Примеры	Примерное произношение
	lamp, puppy, plate, pupil, pen	п
	board, club, big, back, bad, bus	б
	city, letter, ten, table, two, toast, tree	т
	hand, date, do, word, idea, dish	д
	week, speak, kid, cry, quarter	к
	go, game, dog, grape, gold, goose	г
	всегда возникает в: ch: chair [ t∫ eə ], child [ t∫ aild ] t + ure: creature [ ´ kri: t∫ ə ], future [ ´ fju: t∫ ə ]	ч
	gin, page, job, joke, jungle	дьж
	life, knife, phone, photo	ф
	five, very, vase, visit, violet	в
	Эти два звука даются одним и тем же буквосочетанием th. Обычно, если это буквосочетание стоит в середине слова (между двумя гласными), то возникает звук [ ð ]: without [ wi´ ð aut ] И, если оно стоит в начале или конце слова, то возникает звук [ θ ]: thanks [ θ æ nks ], faith [ feiθ ]	с (межзубный) з (межзубный)
	glass, test, ice, city, son, seven	с
	zoo, size, rose, news, rose	з
	существует несколько буквосочетаний, которые всегда дают этот звук (помимо других): tion [∫ ə n ]: celebration [ ´ seli´ brei∫ n ], tuition [ tju: ´ i∫ n ] cious [∫ ə s ]: delicious [ di´ li∫ ə s ], vicious [ ´ vi∫ ə s ] cian [∫ ə n ]: musician [ mju: ´ zi∫ ə n ], politician [ poli´ ti∫ ə n ] и, конечно, буквосочетание sh: sheep [ ∫ i: p ], shoot [ ∫ u: t ]	ш
	usually, pleasure, beige	ж
	home, help, hat, here, happy, ham, hot	х
	come, mummy, map, mouse, milk, swim	м
	pen, no, name, night, neck, nut	н
	носовой звук возникает в буквосочетании гласная + ng: sing [ siŋ ], hungry [ ´ hΛ ŋ gri ], wrong [ wroŋ ], hang [ hæ ŋ ]	н - долгий
	ball, table, lamp, look, live, old, last	л
	read, rain, ride, rest, rock, rabbit	р
	мягкость в звуке может возникать в одних случаях, и никак не проявляться в других аналогичных случаях, например super [ ´ s u: p ə ]: u в открытом слоге: mute [ mju: t ], huge [ hju: d3 ] ew: few [ fju: ], lewd [ lju: d ] если слово начинается на y + гласная: yard [ ja: d ], young [ ja: ŋ ]	й
	week, well, twelve, what, where, why, wall, want	у/в
Diphthongs - Дифтонги (двугласные) - это сложный звук, в состав которого входят два звука. В большинстве случаев дифтонг можно " разбить" на два звука, но не на письме. Так как во многих случаях один из составляющих звуков дифтонга, если он употребляется отдельно, будет иметь иное обозначение. Поэтому большинство дифтонгов обозначаются не совокупностью разных транскрипционных значков, а своим собственным знаком.
Phonetic Symbol	Rules and examples – Правила и примеры	Примерное произношение
	обычно возникает в следующих случаях: a в открытом слоге: game [ geim], pale [ peil ] ai в закрытом слоге: pain [ pein ], rail [ reil ] ay (обычно в конце): pray [ prei ], hay [ hei ] ey (редко, но метко) обычно в конце: grey [ grei ], survey [ ´ sε: vei ] Примечание: это же буквосочетание иногда даёт звук [ i: ]: key [ ki: ]	эй
	обычно возникает в следующих случаях: буква i в открытом слоге: fine [ fain ], price [ prais ] ie на конце слова: pie [ pai ], die [ dai ] буква y в открытом слоге: rhyme [ raim ], syce [ sais ] и на конце слова: my [ mai], cry [ krai ] ye на конце слова: dye [ dai ], rye [ rai ]	ай
	обычно возникает в следующих случаях: oi (обычно в середине слова) - poison [ ´ poizə n ], noise [ noiz ] oy (обычно в конце) - boy [ boi ], alloy [ ´ æ loi ]	ой
	дают следующие буквосочетания: ea + r: hear [ hiə ], near [ niə ] - (см. примечание) e + r + e: here [ hiə ], sere [ siə ] ee + r: deer [ diə ], peer [ piə ] Примечание: если за этим буквосочетанием идёт согласная, то возникает звук [ ε: ] - dearth [ dε: θ ]. Исключение - beard [ biə d ] дают следующие буквосочетания: i + r + e: fire [ faiə ], hire [ haiə ] y + r + e: tyre [ taiə ], pyre [ paiə ]	иэ     аиэ
	дают следующие буквосочетания: a + r + e: dare [ deə ], flare [ fleə ] ai + r: hair [ heə ], fair [ feə ]	эа
	tour [ tuə ], poor [ puə ]	уэ
	возникает в следующих буквосочетаниях: o + w: how [ hau ], down [ daun ] - (см. примечание) o + u: round [ raund ], pout [ paut ] Примечание: это же буквосочетание часто даёт звук [ ə u ]	ау
	обычно даёт буква o в открытом слоге: stone [ stə un ], lonely [ ´ l ə unli ] буквосочетания o + w (обычно в конце слова): blow [ blə u ], crow [ krə u ] - (см. примечание) ou: soul [ sə ul ], foul [ fə ul ] oa+ гласная: coach [ kə ut∫ ], toad [ tə ud ] old (как в открытом слоге): cold [ kə uld ], gold [ gə uld ]. Примечание: слово-исключение: both [ bə uθ ]; это же буквосочетание часто даёт звук [ au ]	эу

 

CHAPTER 1

ME AND MY WORLD

to be (быть/есть) – настоящее время

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I	am	I	am not	Am	I	…?
He She It	is	He She It	isn’t	Is	he she it	…?
You We They	are	You We They	aren’t	Are	you we they	…?

to be (был) – прошедшее время

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I He She It	was	I He She It	was	Was	I he she it	…?
You We They	were	You We They	were	Were	you we they	…?

to be (будет) – будущее время

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I We	shall be	I We	shan’t be	Shall	I we	be?
He She It You They	will be	He She It You They	won’t be	Will	he she it you they	be?

to have (иметь) – настоящее время

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I You We They	have	I You We They	haven’t	Have	I you we they	got?
He She It	has	He She It	hasn’t	Has	he she it	got?

had (имел) – прошедшее время

 

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I He She It You We They	had	I He She It You We They	didn’t have	Did	I he she it you we they	have?

1.1 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст ME AND MY FAMILY и заполни пропуски:

If there _ right in the soul,

There _ beauty in the person,

If there _ beauty in the person,

There _ harmony in the home

There _ order in the nation

There _ place in the world.

My name _ Denis. I _ 17 years old. I _ born in Nizhnevartovsk, and still live here. My family _ a small one. There _ three of us in the family: my mother, my elder brother and me.

My mother _ a manager of the firm. She _ fond of her job. And in spite of the fact that, she _ always busy she finds time to spend with us. We often spend evenings together. Sometimes we go to the cinema. I like films very much, and my favorite one _ " The Walking Dead". It can seem strange, but I have seen it for many times and whenever I have a chance to watch it I don't miss it. My brother's name _ Nikita. He _ already a student. He _ 20. Nikita studies at the SUSU. I think he will become a good specialist. He studies a lot and he _ an excellent student. I _ so proud of him.

Nikita _ tall and slim. But what girls like most about his ap­pearance _ the dimples on his cheeks. He _ short black curly hair. He _ rather handsome.

" Well, as my mother works very hard and _ a lot of things to do, " my brother and I try to help her about the house. So we share our house chores. I usually tidy up the rooms and sometimes cook something to eat. Frankly speaking, I _ not very good at cook­ing, but my mother doesn't think so. Maybe she doesn't just tell me about it, because she doesn't want me to be disappointed. But I think that everything comes by experience. I _ an optimist by nature.

1.2 Заполни пропуски, используя слова в рамке:

 

bold patch	on a diet	have the sense	shy
speak openly	extrovert	look my best	spiteful
lose my temper	curly hair	upset easily	courage
piercing eyes	impulsive	very proud	parting

1. She's always going _ because she has a complex about not being slim enough.

2. Unfortunately she gets _ so be careful what you say.

3. He had medium-length grey hair with a _ down the middle.

4. As I meet a lot of people in my job, I try to _, which means I spend quite a lot on clothes every year.

5. She's very _ so she keeps doing things she regrets later.

6. As he's tall, you don't notice the _ on top of his head.

7. He was so _ that at parties he never spoke to people unless he had been introduced to them.

8. It takes _ to stand up to somebody who's bul­lying you.

9. I can _ to her. I don't have to hide my feelings.

10. She had a perm because she thought _ looked fashionable.

11. He's a great _. He loves going out and meeting people.

12. She had _ which seemed to look right through you.

13. She's _ of her son and never stops talking about him.

14. I hope they'll _ to lock the doors and call the police.

15. It was very _ of him to deliberately try to make a fool of her.

16. I'm afraid I seem to _ more often these days, especially when I get bad service.

 

1.3 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст ME AND MY HOME и заполни пропуски:

Now let me tell you a little about my home. I think it doesn't matter what your home _ like, anyway, it _ the place where you once move in and start to furnish and decorate it to your own taste. It becomes your second " ego". So my second " ego" _ not very big, but it _ very comfortable. There _ enough space for everything: a hall, a living-room, a couple of bedrooms and a bathroom.

Our living-room _ very spacious. It _ the heart of our apart­ment. It _ the place where I can see the rest of my family. In the evening we sit here in the soft armchairs and on the sofa, which _ on the right of the room. In front of them there _ furniture stuffed with crystal and books. There _ also a stereo system and a TV set.

I _ very glad that I _ my own room. My bedroom _ my private area though it _ also my brother's room. It _ a small room, but very cosy. There _ two beds, a desk, a personal computer, a big bookcase and a wardrobe in my room.

Our kitchen _ not large. We _ regular meals in the kitchen. There _ some cupboards, a cooker, a fridge, a dishwasher, a microwave and a kitchen table with four chairs. There _ also some plants in our kitchen on the window-sill which make our kitchen cosier.

Our hall _ very big. There _ a wardrobe, some book-shelves on the walls, a long rag on the floor, and a closet where we keep our shoes.

 

1.4 Сопоставь словосочетания из колонки A со словами из колонки В и их переводом в колонке C:

 

A	В	С
1. As wise as	a) a bat.	тихий, как мышь
2. As stubborn as	b) a lion.	упрямый, как осел
3. As brave as	c) an owl.	храбрый, как лев
4. As hungry as	d) a wolf.	мудрый, как сова
5. As cunning as	e) a horse.	хитрый, как лиса
6. As strong as	f) a mouse.	здоровый, как бык
7. As quiet as	g) a donkey.	голодный, как волк
8. As blind as	h) a fox.	слепая курица

Составь предложения с данными словосочетаниями как в примере:

As quick as a flash, she skied down the slop.

 

1.5 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст ME AND MY INNER WORLD и заполни пропуски:

As I _ a sunny soul person by nature, I love to have fun, to laugh, to talk and I like people with a sense of humor as well. I think that humor _ one of the most necessary things for people. It _ such a feature of character that everyone of us must possess, because it helps us to live better, to survive, to go through our daily problems easier.

I think that every person _ his beauty, though some people don't develop it. I mean the beauty of the soul, the interior beauty. And I believe that our beauty depends on our character, on our soul, on our deeds. For example, when we meet a person and we like his character, his behavior, his actions we think that he _ nice, and even if he doesn't have an attractive appearance we don't feel it and we like him. As for me I value faithfulness, kindness and intelligence about people. I think these qualities _ very important for any kind of relationship between people. I judge people by their actions. I follow the proverb, " Actions speak louder than words".

Well, as I _ a very communicative lad, I _ many friends and I often spend with them my weekends. I like them all, but most of them I love my girlfriend Julia. She _ very slim, though she _ not tall. She _ a round face with very large and dark eyes, her nose _ straight. My girlfriend _ a very nice girl with a charming smile.

I think that every person must _ a close friend, a true friend, with whom he can share his ideas, problems, and he or she _ always ready to listen to you and help you. My best friend’s name is Danil. As for Danil, I can always rely on him, he _ a very reliable person and I _ pretty sure he _ never let me down. He _ a good ear for music. So we went to a musical school together. Danil plays the guitar and I _ fond of the drums. He _ a musician, and I _ sure he _ able to manage it, as he _ a very purposeful lad.

 

1.6 Проверь хороший ли ты друг:

1. You bought a nice pair of jeans last week. Your friend has bought the same jeans. What do you say?

A. 'Oh, great. Now we both look fantastic! '

B. 'How could you buy the same ones? '

C. 'I don't care if we've got the same jeans or not.'

2. Your results in the test were much better than your friend's. What do you say?

A. 'Oh, I'm sorry! '

B. 'Don't be sad. Next time we'll prepare for the test together.'

C. 'Why didn't you work harder? '

3. Someone is laughing about your friend. He/She isn't there. What do you do?

A. Tell him/her to stop at once.

B. You don't say anything. It's not your problem.

С. You tell your friend so that he/she can do something about it.

4. Your friend's cat has died. What do you say?

A. 'That cat was very old.'

B. 'Oh, I'm so sorry. That little cat was so funny.'

C. 'Don't be sad. You'll get another one soon.'

5. You've heard from a group mate that your friend has got a problem.

A. My friend should tell me all his/her problems.

B. I don't care if my friend talks about her problems or not.

C. My friend can tell me what he/she wants.

6. Your friend has broken your MP3. What do you say?

A. 'It's OK. I've listened to it a lot.'

B. 'You're stupid! Couldn't you be more careful? '

С. 'I really liked it. Could you buy me another MP3? '

7. Your friend has changed his/her hair color. It's red now. You think it looks terrible. What do you say?

A. Nothing.

B. 'I'm sorry but I don't like it very much.'

C. 'Oh, how nice.'

8. Your friend needs some money and he/she asks you. He/she still owes you money from last week.

A. You give it to him/her and don't say a word.

B. You don't give him/her any more money.

C. First you tell him/her that he/she still owes you money.

 

Проверь свои ответы:

Mostly A You're such a great friend.

Mostly B You should be a bit nicer towards your friends sometimes.

Mostly C Why don't you try to be a better friend? Life is much easier then.

 

1.7 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст ME AND MY UNIVERSITY и заполни пропуски:

Now I will tell you a little about my university, about the place where I spend a lot of time.

Well, I _ the first-year student of SUSU now. I like it very much. It _ big and nice. It _ a two-storied building. On the ground floor there _ a canteen, a lot of administrative offices and economics department. We can also look through the time-table there. On the second floor there _ arts and science, technological and law departments. There _ gym and technical laboratory on the basement.

Frankly speaking, the only thing I don't like about my university _ that we - students - _ a lot of strain, as it _ regarded to be a good university. And especially it _ difficult for me as I always find excuses to put my homework off. Of course, I like the idea of going to bed early, but quite often I have to sit up late brushing up on my tasks, though I feel very sleepy.

When I _ a child I wanted to become a doctor, but now I understand how difficult and responsible this work _, and I think I _ not _ able to be a really good doctor, I think a person must be cut out to be a doctor. And now I want to work in providing information technology systems production company. And I want to study English as a second high education, because I’ll have to communicate with foreigners at my future job, to understand their pronunciation and to improve mine. But I realize that it _ very difficult and I must work hard, especially at my English which _ going to become a clue to my forthcoming career...

 

1.8 Заполни пропуски: profession; job; career; occupation

 

1. Her _ as a dancer came to an end when she broke her leg.

2. My father has been unable to find a _ for the past two years.

3. You must write your name, age and _ on the application form.

4. Peter is a doctor by _, and has his own practice in Brighton.

5. Julia got a _ soon after she left school.

6. Although she is a lawyer by _, she knows little about criminal law.

7. She started her _ as an actress at the age of 18.

8. He has applied for several _ but hasn't got one yet.

1.10 Заполни пропуски:

 

applicant	advertisement	resignation	career
retirement	qualifications	application	qualified
retired	redundant	interview	CV
ambitious	manual work	fire	permanent post
night shift	assembly line	retire	job satisfaction
promoted	responsibility	resign	good impression
commission	fringe benefit	deal with	work overtime

 

1. An occupation which gives opportunities for promotion is a _.

2. A document which lists your personal and professional details _.

3. A person who has reached an age where they no longer work is _.

4. When you want to leave a job, you have to give your _.

5. If you have the right talents and experience for a job, then you are _.

6. When you try and get a job, usually have to complete an _ form.

7. If an employee is no longer needed, he or she can be made _.

8. You can often find about a new job by an _ in a newspaper.

9. If an employer is interested in meeting you, you will be asked to come to an _.

10. It's my _ to see that the goods are delivered on time.

11. Her work was so good that she was _ to the position of assistant manager only a year after she joined the company.

12. Employees have to _ at 65 although I'm sure some would like to stay on.

13. He's finally found a _ working for a pharmaceutical company after years of going from job to job.

14. I've decided to _ and look for a job where I can make more use of my training.

15. As a salesperson, I get _ on every dress I sell.

16. The staff agreed to _ so that the order would be completed on time.

17. The boss threatened to _ her if her work didn't improve.

18. Work on the _ was so monotonous that some employees tried to sabotage it just to have a bit of variety.

19. As I work on the _ I don't have much social life.

20. She's very _ and will do anything to get to the top.

21. You can create a _ before your interview by filling in your application form as neatly as possible.

22. The only _ or 'perk', he gets is a free company car.

23. In my job I have to _ inquiries from customers.

24. For me _ is more important than a high salary so I'm thinking of becoming a social worker.

25. Who wants an office job when I can earn more by doing _, like working on a building site?

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER2

TRANSPORT

 

2.1 Переведи на русский следующие слова и выражения:

 

A steam powered vehicle, a wind driven vehicles, accelerant, acceptance, accordance, admittance, advantage, air-actuated, air-bag, air-blast, air-break, air-conditioned, air-core, air-cushion, air-dried, airflow, airframe, air-handling, airplane, air-resistance, airway, appearance, applicant, approval, arrival, assistant, best-known, bondage, breakage, clockwork, gunpowder, highway, household, human-powered, leakage, low-pollution, maintenance, observance, occupant, participant, passage, performance, pipe­line, postage, proposal, purpose of the vehicle, railroad, railway, reactant, refusal, rehearsal, resistance, resistant, shortage, shrinkage, skateboard, stoppage, storage, there is no information about..., to be able to separate from, to be limited by..., to be much more efficient and compact, to be not under pressure, to be the first of this kind, to be under pressure, to compress the gas, to drive a car, to offer a prize to the winner, tramway, troubleshooter, usage, waterway, windmill, wreckage.

2.2 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст WHAT WAS THE FIRST CAR?, раздели на логические части и озаглавь их:

Several Italians recorded designs for wind driven vehicles. The first was Guido da Vigevano in 1335. It was a windmill type drive to gears and thus to wheels. Vaturio designed a similar vehicle which was also never built. Later Leonardo da Vinci designed a clockwork driven tricycle with tiller steering and a differential mechanism between the rear wheels.

A Catholic priest named Father Ferdinand Verbiest has been said to have built a steam powered vehicle for the Chinese Emperor Chien Lung in about 1678. There is no information about the vehicle, only the event. Since Thomas Newcomen built his first steam engine only in 1712, we can guess that this was possibly a model vehicle powered by a mechanism like Hero’s steam engine, a spinning wheel with jets on the periphery.

Newcomen’s engine had a cylinder and a piston and was the first of this kind, and it used steam as a condensing agent to form a vacuum and with an overhead walking beam, pull on a rod to lift water. It was an enormous thing and was strictly stationary. The steam was not under pressure, just an open boiler piped to the cylinder. It used the same vacuum principle that Thomas Savery had patented to lift water directly with the vacuum, which would have limited his pump to less than 32 feet of lift. Newcomen’s lift would have only been limited by the length of the rod and the strength of the valve at the bottom.

Somehow Newcomen was not able to separate his invention from that of Savery and had to pay for Savery’s rights. In 1765 James Watt developed the first pressurized steam engine which proved to be much more efficient and compact than the Newcomen engine.

The first vehicle to move under its own power for which there is a record was designed by Nicholas Joseph Cugnot and constructed by M. Brezin in 1769. A replica of this vehicle is on display at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, in Paris. The Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D. C. also has a large (half size) scale model. A second unit was built in 1770 which weighed 8, 000 pounds and had a top speed on 2 miles per hour, and on the cobble stone streets of Paris this was probably as fast as anyone wanted to go it. The early steam powered vehicles were so heavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong as iron. A road thus made out of iron rails became the norm for the next hundred and twenty five years. The vehiclesgot bigger and heavier and more powerful and as such they were eventually capable of pulling a train of many cars filled with freight and passengers.

Many attempts had been made in England by the 1830’s to develop a practical vehicle that didn’t need rails. A series of accidents and propa­ganda from the established railroads caused a flurry of restrictive legislation to be passed and the development of the automobile bypassed England. Several commercial vehicles were built but they were more like trains without tracks.

The development of the internal combustion engine had to wait until fuel was available to combust internally. Gunpowder was tried but didn’t work out. Gunpowder carburetors are still hard to find. The first gas really did use gas. They used coal gas generated by heating coal in a pressure vessel or boiler. A Frenchman named Etienne Lenoir patented the first practi­cal gas engine in Paris in 1860 and drove a car based on the design from Paris to Joinville in 1862. His one-half horse power engine had a bore of 5 inches and a 24 inch stroke. It was big and heavy and turned 100 rpm. Lenoir died in 1900.

Lenoir had a separate mechanism to compress the gas before combus­tion. In 1862, Alphonse Bear de Rochas figured out how to compress the gas in the same cylinder in which it was to burn, which is the way we still do it. This process of bringing the gas into the cylinder, compressing it, combusting the compressed mixture, then exhausting it is known as the Otto cycle, or four cycle engine. Lenoir claimed to have run the car on benzene and his drawings show an electric spark ignition. If so, then his vehicle was the first to run on petroleum based fuel, or petrol, or what we call gas, short for gasoline.

Siegfried Marcus, of Mecklenburg, built a car in 1868 and showed one at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873. His later car was called the Strassenwagen had about 3/4 horse power at 500 rpm. It ran on crude wooden wheels with iron rims and stopped by pressing wooden blocks against the iron rims, but it had a clutch, a differential and a magneto ignition. One of the four cars which Marcus built is in the Vienna Technical Museum and can still be driven under its own power. In 1876, Nokolaus Otto patented the Otto cycle engine, de Rochas had neglected to do so, and this later became the basis for Daimler and Benz breaking the Otto patent by claiming prior art from de Rochas.

In 1885, in Gottllieb Daimler’s workshop in Bad Cannstatt the wooden motorcycle was built. Daimler’s son Paul rode this motorcycle from Cann­statt to Unterturkheim and back on November 10, 1885. Daimler used a hot tube ignition system to get his engine speed up to 1000 rpm.

The previous August, Karl Benz had already driven his light, tubular framed tricycle around the Neckar valley, only 60 miles from where Daimler lived and worked. They never met. Frau Berta Benz took Karl’s car one night and made the first long car trip to see her mother, travelling 62 miles from Mannheim to Pforzheim in 1888.

Also in August 1888, William Steinway, owner of Steinway & Sons piano factory, talked to Daimler about US manufacturing right and by September had a deal. By 1891 the Daimler Motor Company, owned by Steinway, was producing petrol engines for tramway cars, carriages, quadracycles, fire engines and boats in a plant in Hartford, CT. Steam cars had been built in America since the Civil War but the early ones were like miniature locomotives. In 1871, Dr. J. W.Carhart, professor of physics at Wisconsin State University, and the J. I. Case Company built a working steam car. It was practical enough to inspire the State of Wisconsin to offer a $10, 000 prize to the winner of a 200 mile race in 1878. The 200 mile race had seven entries, of which two showed up for the race. One car was sponsored by the city of Green Bay and the other by the city of Oshkosh. The Green Bay car was the fastest but broke down, and the Oshkosh car finished with an average speed of 6 mph.

From this time until the end of the century, nearly every community in America had a mad scientist working on a steam car. Many old news papers tell stories about the trials and failures of these would be inventors.

By 1890 Ransom E.Olds had built his second steam powered car. One was sold to a buyer in India, but the ship it was on was lost at sea. Running by February, 1893, and ready for road trials by September, 1893, the car built by Charles and Frank Duryea, brothers, was the first gasoline powered car in America. The first run on public roads was made on September 21, 1893, in Springfield, MA. They had purchased a used horse drawn buggy for $70 and installed a 4HP, single cylinder gasoline engine. The car (buggy) had a friction transmission, spray carburettor and low tension ignition. It must not have run very well because Frank didn’t drive it again until November 10, when it was reported by the Springfield Morning Union newspaper. This car was put into storage in 1894 and stayed there until 1920 when it was rescued by Inglis M. appreciated and presented to the United States National Museum.

 

2.3 Выбери подходящий вариант и заполни пропуски:

 

1. Vaturio... a similar vehicle which was also never built,

a) designed b) proposed c) applied

2. Newcomen’s... had a cylinder and a piston and was the first of this kind.

a) carburetor b) engine c) muffler

3. The first vehicle... under its own power for which there is a record was designed by Nicholas Joseph Cugnot.

a) to move b) to fly c) to navigate

4. The early... powered vehicles were so heavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong as iron.

a) gas b) petroleum c) steam

5. Many attempts had been made in England by the 1830’s to develop a practical vehicle that didn’t need....

a) rails b) road c) highway

6. The development of the internal combustion engine had to wait until fuel was available... internally.

a) to evaporate b) to combust c) to vaporize

7.... cars had been built in America since the Civil War.

a) gas b) steam c) petroleum

 

2.4 Найди в тексте соответствующие английские эквиваленты:

Управляемые ветром транспортные средства, сила клапана, пар под давлением, длина рычага, был разработан, высшая скорость, транспортные средства стали больше и тяжелее, делать много попыток, газовый двигатель, двигатель внутреннего сгорания, деревянные колеса, бензиновый двигатель.

2.5 Сопоставь русские слова с их английскими эквивалентами:

1)	проект	a) design	b) decision	c) designation
2)	колесо	a) while	b) wheel	c) wheal
3)	транспортное средство	a) vehicle	b) vehicular	c) velocimeter
4)	двигатель	a) engineer	b) engineering	c) engine
5)	тяжелый	a) heavy	b) have	c) heave
6)	мощный	a) powering	b) powerful	c) powerless
7)	ограничительный	a) descriptive	b) restocking	c) restrictive
8)	развитие	a) devotion	b) description	c) development
9)	сгорать	a) to combust	b) to combine	c) to coincide
10)	поездка	a) strip	b) trip	c) track
11)	вдохновить	a) to impress	b) to inspire	c) to imprint
12)	с тех пор	a) science	b) since	c) sincere

 

 

2.6 Прочитай, письменно переведи и заполни пропуски: is derived; include; terms; transportation; vehicle; driver.

 

An automobile is a wheeled 1) _ that carries its own motor. Different types of automobiles 2) _ cars, buses, trucks, vans, and motorcycles, with cars being the most popular. The term 3) _ from Greek ‘autos’ (self) and Latin ‘movere’ (move), referring to the fact that it ‘moves by itself. Earlier 4) _ terms for automobile include ‘horseless carriage’ and ‘motor car’. An automobile has seats for the 5) _ driver and, almost without exception, one or more passengers. It is the main source of 6) _ across the world.

 

2.7 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст THE FIRST AUTOMOBILE COMPANIES и определи верны ли данные высказывания:

 

1. Ford had sold his First car, which he called a Quadracycle, to build another one. 2. Without any Financial backing of wealthy people Ford formed the Detroit Automobile Company in 1899. 3. Ransom E. Olds was the First mass producer of gasoline powered automobiles in the United States. 4.By the end of the century Ransom Olds had produced a great number of electric cars. 5. Lutzmann of 1895 was an automobile of typi­cally European design. 6. The European design was much advanced of the American designs of the same time. 7. The Rolls Royce Silver Ghost of 1906 was a single cylinder car that stayed in production until 1925. 8. The Rolls Royce Silver Ghost represented the best engineering and technology available at the time.

 

Henry Ford had an engine running by 1893 but it was 1896 before he built his first car. By the end of the year Ford had sold his first car, which he called a Quadracycle, for $200 and used the money to build another one. With the financial backing of the Mayor of Detroit, William C. May- bury and other wealthy Detroiters, Ford formed the Detroit Automobile Company in 1899. A few prototypes were built but no production cars were ever made by this company. It was dissolved in January 1901. Ford would not offer a car for sale until 1903.

The first closed circuit automobile race held at Narragansett Park, Rhode Island, in September 1896. All cars were Duryeas and a Morris & Salom Electrobat. Thirteen Duryeas of the same design were produced at the factory in 1896, making it the first production car. In 1898, the brothers Duryea, the owners of the factory, went their separate ways and the Duryea Motor Wagon Company was closed. Charles, who was bom in 1861 and was eight years older than Frank, had taken advantage of Frank in publicity and patents. Frank went out on his own and eventually joined with Stevens Arms and Tool Company to form the Stevens—Duryea Com­pany which was sold to Westinghouse in 1915. Charles tried to produce some of his own hare-brained ideas with various companies until 1916. Thereafter, he limited himself to writing technical book and articles. He died in 1938. Frank got a half a million dollars for the Westinghouse deal and lived in comfort until his death in 1967, just seven months from his 98th birthday.

In 1899, production of the Olds Motor Vehicle Company of Detroit began. After an early failure with luxury vehicles they established the First really successful production with the classic Curved Dash Oldsmobile.

The Curved Dash Oldsmobile had a single cylinder engine, tiller steer­ing and chain drive. It sold for $650. In 1901, 600 were sold and the next years were 1902 — 2, 500, 1903 — 4, 000, 1904 — 5, 000. In August 1904, Ransom Olds left the company to form Reo (for Ransom Eli Olds). Ransom E. Olds was the First mass producer of gasoline powered automobiles in the United States, even though Duryea was the First auto manufacturer with their 13 cars. Ransom Olds produced a small number of electric cars around the turn of the century. Little is known about them and none survive. In 1899 and 1900, electrics outsold all other type of cars and the most popular electric was the Columbia built by Colonel Albert Augustus Pope, owner of American Bicycle Company.

Lutzmann of 1895 by J. A. Koosen and H. Lawson is typical of Ameri­can design in the mid 1890’s. It was truly a horseless carriage. Tiller steering, engine under the floorboards, very high center of gravity, not designed for road travel. Imagine climbing into one of these and trying to drive across town and around a few corners. This Daimler of 1899 was owned by Lionel Rothchild. The European design is much advanced of the American designs of the same time. Gottlieb Daimler took part in the London-to-Brighton run in 1896 but died in 1900 at the age of 66 without ever meeting Benz. His German engines powered the automobile industries of Britain and France. The 1908 Haynes in the back ground shows the rapid development of the petrol powered car when compared to the 1894 model in the foreground. The Rolls Royce Silver Ghost of 1906 was a six cylinder car that stayed in production until 1925. It represented the best engineering and technology available at the time and these cars still run smoothly and silently today. This period marked the end of the beginning of the automobile.

 

2.8 Переведи на английский язык:

 

1. История автомобильной промышленности насчитывает более чем 100 лет.

2. Автомобильная промышленность часто расценивается как главный двигатель индустриального роста двадцатого столетия.

3. Методы производства автомобилей, от их кустарного изготов­ления до массового производства, всегда имели большое влияние на организацию и технологию других отраслей промышленности.

4. Современные автомобили состоят из более 1 200 деталей.

5. Ав­томобильная промышленность является важным и динамичным сектором промышленности практически любой экономически раз­витой страны.

6. Использование автомобилей привносит комфорт, скорость и удобство в современную жизнь человека.

7. Огромный рост количества транспортных средств приводит к загрязнению окружающей среды.

8. Современная стратегия автомобильной про­мышленности состоит в том, чтобы сделать транспортные средства более эффективными и экологически безопасными.

 

THE PRONOUNS

 

Местоимения употребляются в предложении вместо имени существительного или имени прилагательного. Местоимения называют людей, предметы или призна­ки, уже упомянутые ранее.

Слова, обозначающие мужчин, заменяются место­имением he (он).

Слова, обозначающие женщин, заменяются место­имением she (она).

Слова, обозначающие неодушевленные предметы, заменяются местоимением it.

Местоимение they (они) относится ко всем трем ро­дам.

They are boys. They are engineers. They are apples.

 

Личные местоимения (personal pronouns)

Личные местоимения в английском имеют два па­дежа:

1. Именительный падеж (the nominative case). I (я) you (ты) he (он) she (она) it (оно) we (мы) you (вы) they (они)

2. Объектный падеж (the objective case), заменяю­щий собой все остальные падежи русского. me (мне, меня) you (тебе, тебя) him (ему, его) her (ей, ее) it (ему) неодуш. us (нам, нас) you (вам, вас) them (им, их)

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