Federalism: State and Local Governments

⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 9 из 15Следующая ⇒

The fifty states are quite diverse in size, population, climate, economy, history, and interests. The fifty state governments often differ from one another, too. Because they often approach political, social, or economic questions differently, the states have been called " laboratories of democracy". However, they do share certain basic structures. The individual states all have republican forms of government with a senate and a house. (There is one exception, Nebraska, which has only one legislative body of 49 " senators" ). All have executive branches headed by state governors and independent court systems. Each state has also its own constitution. But all must respect the federal laws and not make laws that interfere with those of the other states (e.g., someone who is divorced under the laws of one state is legally divorced in all). Likewise, cities and local authorities must make their laws and regulations so that they fit their own state's constitution.

The Constitution limits the federal government to specific powers, but modern judicial interpretations of the Constitution have expanded federal responsibilities. All others automatically belong to the states and to the local communities. This has meant that there has always been a battle between federal and state's rights. The traditional American distrust of a too powerful central government has kept the battle fairly even over the years. The states and local communities in the US have rights that in other countries generally belong to the central government.

All education at any level, for example, is the concern of the states. The local communities have the real control at the public school level. They control administration of the schools. They elect the school board officials, and their local community taxes largely support the schools. Each individual school system, therefore, hires and fires and pays its own teachers. It sets its own policies within broad state guidelines. Similarly, there is no national police force, the FBI influence being limited to a very few federal crimes, such as kidnapping. Each state has its own state police and its own criminal laws. The same is true with, for example, marriage and divorce laws, driving laws and licenses, drinking laws, and voting procedures. In turn, each city has its own police force that it hires, trains, controls, and organizes. Neither the President nor the governor of a state has direct power over it. By the way, police departments of counties are often called " sheriffs departments". Sheriffs are usually elected, but state and city police officials are not.

There are many other areas which are also the concern of cities, towns, and villages. Among these are opening and closing hours for stores, street and road repair, or architectural laws and other regulations. Also, one local community might decide that a certain magazine is pornographic and forbid its sale, or local school board might determine that a certain novel should not be in their school library. (A court, however, may later tell the community or school board that they have unfairly attempted to exercise censorship.) But another village, a few miles down the road, might accept both. The same is true of films.

Most states and some cities have their own income taxes. Many cities and counties also have their own laws saying who may and may not own a gun. Many airports, some of them international, are owned and controlled by cities or counties and have their own airport police. Finally, a great many of the most hotly debated questions, which in other countries are decided at the national level, are in America settled by the individual states and communities. Among these are, for example, laws about drug use, capital punishment, abortion, and homosexuality.

A connecting thread that runs all the way through governments in the US is the " accountability" of politicians, officials, agencies, and governmental groups. This means that information and records on crimes, fires, marriages and divorces, court cases, property taxes, etc. are public information. It means, for example, that when a small town needs to build a school or buy a new police car, how much it will cost (and which company offered what at what cost) will be in the local newspaper. In some cities, meetings of the city council are carried live on the radio. As a rule, politicians in the US at any level pay considerable attention to public opinion. Ordinary citizens participate actively and directly in decisions that concern them. In some states, such as California, in fact, citizens can petition to have questions (i.e., " propositions" ) put on the ballot in state elections. If the proposition is approved by the voters, it then

becomes a law. This " grass roots" character of American democracy can also be seen in New England town meetings or at the public hearings of local school boards.

Adding this up, America has an enormous variety in its governmental bodies. Its system tries to satisfy the needs and wishes of people at the local level, while at the same time the Constitution guarantees basic rights to anyone, anywhere in America. This has been very important, for instance, to the Civil Rights Movement and its struggle to secure equal rights for all Americans, regardless of race, place of residence, or state voting laws. Therefore, although the states control their own elections as well as the registration procedures for national elections, they cannot make laws that would go against an indiv' ual's constitutional rights.

TASK 2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following expressions below.

- ставить вопрос на голосование;

- расширить круг обязанностей;

- независимо от;

- транслировать по радио в прямом эфире;

- запретить продажу чего-либо;

- городской совет;

- общественное мнение;

- обеспечить равные права.

TASK 3 Answer the questions.

1. What are the common principles in the structures of governments of individual states?

2. Who is the head of the executive branch of power in each state?

3. How must laws and constitutions of different states correlate?

4. What is meant by the " battle" between federal and states' rights?

5. Give at least 5 examples of the areas of public life that the states are responsible for.

6. What is a " sheriff department" and who is a sheriff?

7. Are income taxes and prices of goods the same in different states?

8. What is meant by the " accountability" of politicians and officials?

TASK 1. Read the text.

UnitV ELECTIONS

Political Parties

The Constitution says nothing about political parties, but over time the US has in fact developed a two-party system. The two leading parties are the Democrats and the Republicans. There are other parties besides these two, and foreign observers are often surprised to learn that among these are also a Communist party and several Socialist parties. Minor parties have occasionally won offices at lower levels of government, but they do not play a role in national politics. In fact, one does not need to be a member of a political party to run in any election at any level of government. Also, people can simply declare themselves to be members of one of the two major parties when they register to vote in a district

Sometimes, the Democrats are thought of as associated with labour, and the Republicans with business and industry. Republicans also tend to oppose the greater involvement of the federal government in some areas of public life which they consider to be the responsibility of the states and communities. Democrats, on the other hand, tend to favour a more active role of the central government in social matters.

To distinguish between the parties is often difficult, however. Furthermore, the traditional European terms of " right" and " left", or " conservative" and " liberal" do not quite fit the American system. Someone from the " conservative right", for instance, would be against a strong central government. Or a Democrat from one part of the country could be very " liberal", and one from another part, quite " conservative". Even if they have been elected as Democrats or Republicans. Representatives or Senators are not bound to a party programme, nor are they subject to any discipline when they disagree with their party.

While some voters will vote a " straight ticket", in other words, for all of the Republican or Democratic candidates in an election, many do not. They vote for one party's candidate for one office, and another's for another. As a result, the political parties have much less actual power than they do in other nations.

In the US, parties cannot win seats which they are then free to fill with party members they have chosen. Rather, both Representatives and Senators are elected to serve the interests of the people and the areas they represent, that is, their " constituencies". In about 70 per cent of legislative decisions,

Congressmen will vote with the specific wishes of their constituencies in mind, even if this goes against what their own parties might want as national policy. It is quite common, in fact, to find Democrats in Congress voting for a Republican President's legislation, quite a few Republicans voting against it, and so on.

TASK 2. Explain the difference between the two major parties in the US.

TASK 3 Explain the meanings of the following expressions and give Russian equivalents for them.

- to vote a " straight ticket";

- a major party;

- a minor party;

- liberal;

- conservative.

TASK 4. Read the text.

Elections

Anyone who is an American citizen, at least 18 years of age, and is registered to vote may vote. Each state has the right to determine registration procedures. A number of civic groups, such as the League of Women Voters, are actively trying to get more people involved in the electoral process and have drives to register as many people as possible. Voter registration and voting among minorities has dramatically increased during the last twenty years, especially as a result of the Civil Rights Movement.

There is some concern, however, about the number of citizens who could vote in national elections but do not. In the national election of 1984, for instance, only 53.3 per cent of all those who have voted actually did. But then, Americans who want to vote must register, that is put down their names in register before the actual elections take place. There are 50 different registration laws in the US - one set for each state. In the South, voters often have to register not only locally but also at the county seat. In European countries, on the other hand, " permanent registration" of voters is most common. Of those voters in the United States who did register in the 1984 presidential elections, 73 per cent cast their ballots.

Another important factor is that there are many more elections in the US at the state and local levels than there are in most countries. If the number of those who vote in these elections (deciding, for example, if they should pay more taxes so a new main street bridge can be built) were included, the percentage in fact would not be that much different from other countries.

Certainly, Americans are much more interested in local politics than in those at the federal level. Many of the most important decisions, such as those concerning education, housing, taxes, and so on, are made close to home, in the state or county.

The national presidential elections really consist of two separate campaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national party conventions. The other is to win the actual election. The nominating race is a competition between members of the same party. They run in a succession of state primaries and caucuses (which take place between March and June). They hope to gain a majority of delegate votes for their national party conventions (in July or August). The party convention then votes to select the party's official candidate for the presidency. Then follow several months of presidential campaigns by the candidates.

In November of the election year (years divisible by four, e.g. 1988, 1992, 1996, etc.), the voters across the nation go to the polls. If the majority of the popular votes in a state go to the Presidential (and vice-presidential) candidate of one party, then that person is supposed to get all of that state's " electoral votes." These electoral votes are equal to the number of Senators and Representatives each state has in Congress. The candidate with the largest number of these electoral votes wins the election. Each state's electoral votes are formally reported by the " Electoral College." In January of the following year, in a joint session of Congress, the new President and Vice-President are officially announced.

TASK 5 Find т the text the English equivalents for the words and expressions below.

- зарегистрироваться для голосования;

- президентские выборы;

- избиратели;

- избирательный бюллетень;

- избирательная кампания;

- кандидат в президенты;

- коллегия выборщиков;

- утверждение кандидата,

- первичные выборы в партийных организациях;

- первичные выборы на партийных форумах;

- партийный съезд;

- избирательный участок.

TASK 6. Answer the questions.

1. Which American citizens mavvole⁷

2. Why do you think many people who could vote in the national election don't do it?

3. Why are most Americans more interested in local politics than in those at the federal level?

4. What parts does the national presidential election consist of?

5. Describe the process of electing the President.

TASK 7. Election Campaign. Role play.

Imagine you are a candidate of one of the major parties: you have already been elected your party's official candidate for the presidency. Write your programme and organize your election campaign. Persuade as many people in the group as possible to vote for you. Use the vocabulary of the unit.

TASK 8. Read the text and compare political attitudes in the US and in your country. Find the statements you agree and disagree with.

Political Attitudes

It's often been said and does seem to be true: Americans seem almost instinctively to dislike government and politicians. They especially tend to dislike " those fools in Washington" who spend their tax money and are always trying to " interfere" in their local and private concerns. Many would no doubt agree with the statement that the best government is the one that governs least. In a 1984 poll, for example, only a fourth of those asked wanted the federal government to do more to solve the country's problems. Neighbourhoods, communities, and states have a strong pride in their ability to deal with their problems themselves, and this feeling is especially strong in the West.

Americans are seldom impressed by government officials (they do like royalty, as long as it's not theirs). They distrust people who call themselves experts. They don't like being ordered to do anything. For example, in the Revolutionary War (1776-83) and in the Civil War (1861-65), American soldiers often elected their own officers. In their films and fiction as well as in television series, Americans often portray corrupt politicians and incompetent officials. Anyone who wants to be President, they say with a smile, isn't qualified. Their newsmen and journalists and television reporters are known the world over for " not showing proper respect" to governmental leaders, whether their own or others. As thousands of foreign observers have remarked, Americans simply do not like authority.

Many visitors to the US are still surprised by the strong egalitarian tendencies they meet in daily life. Americans from different walks of life,

people with different educational and social backgrounds, will often start talking with one another " just as if they were all equal." Is everybody equal in the land that stated - in the eyes of God and the law - that " all men are created equal? " No, of course not. Some have advantages of birth, wealth, or talent. Some have been to better schools. Some have skins or accents or beliefs that their neighbours don't especially like. Yet the ideal is ever-present in a land where so many different races, language groups, cultural and religious beliefs, hopes, dreams, traditional hates and dislikes have come together.

All in all, what do Americans think of their system of government? What would " We the People" decide today? One American, a Nobel Prize winner in literature, gave this opinion: " We are able to believe that our government is weak, stupid, overbearing, dishonest, and inefficient, and at the same time we are deeply convinced that it is the best government in the world, and we would like to impose it upon everyone else."

Of course, many of today's 240 million Americans would disagree in part or with all. " Who is this one American, " they might ask, " to speak for all of us? "

Unit VI

LANGUAGE ACTIVITIES Glimpses of American History

TASK 1 Listen to the tape and fill in the gaps with the words and expressions that you will hear. Retell the texts.

A. Flag Day

Flag Day, June 14, is the birthday of the American Flag. On this day in

1777 the Continental Congress (a)_____stating that the flag of the new

nation should contain (b)______(7 red ones and 6 white ones) to symbolize

the thirteen colonies and thirteen white stars, arranged (c)_____to symbolize

the (d) and (e)____of these colonies.

In 1776, after the colonies had (f)____their (g)_____from Great

Britain, George Washington and two other revolutionary leaders were

(h)____for task of designing a national flag. The colours they chose were red

for (i)_____, white for (j)______ and blue for (k)______.

According to American legend, they brought their design to Betsy Ross, a young widow who was an excellent seamstress. She followed their sketch

exactly except for suggesting that the stars be (1)_____ rather than

(m)______. Because she made the first American flag, Betsy Ross's name is

still well-known to Americans. Her little home in Philadelphia has been (n)_____, and tens of thousands of tourists visit it each year.

The American flag has been (o)

__many times since Betsy Ross

made the original. Today the flag still (p)_____, in honour of the original

colonies, but now there are fifty stars. Because of its design, the American flag has been nicknamed " (q)______".

B. Independence Day

Independence Day is one of the most important patriotic holidays celebrated in the United States of America. In 1776 the thirteen American colonies were in the midst of the revolutionary war against Great Britain. On the

4th of July of that year the Continental Congress (a)____, the document

which (b)_____the colonies free and independent states. It is the (c)_____

and the (d)

of this document that Americans remember on July, 4.

The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson who

later became the young nation's (e)_____president. Since Independence Day

is a summer holiday and a day-off from work for almost everyone, many

families enjoy (f)_____ or (g)_____ on the 4th. The occasion is also

(h)_____ by colourful and noisy (i)_____, (j)_____and ^m some

communities (k)_____. The flag is flown, and red, white and blue ribbons

are used for decoration at (1)_____. The army (m)_____, firing a thirteen

gun salute. Throughout the nation church bells ring (n)_____ the

Philadelphian Liberty Bell that first (o)

American Independence.

⇐ Предыдущая 4 5 6 7 8910 11 12 13 Следующая ⇒