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Архитектура Аудит Военная наука Иностранные языки Медицина Металлургия Метрология Образование Политология Производство Психология Стандартизация Технологии |
Т.И. Белик, Н.А. Полетаева, А.С. СкоробогатоваСтр 1 из 12Следующая ⇒
Т.И. Белик, Н.А. Полетаева, А.С. Скоробогатова
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Учебное пособие по профессионально-ориентированному обучению иностранному языку студентов МТ факультета
Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации Федеральное агентство по образованию Южно-Уральский государственный университет Кафедра иностранных языков
Ш143.21-9 Б432
Т.И. Белик, Н.А.Полетаева, А.С. Скоробогатова
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Учебное пособие по профессионально-ориентированному обучению иностранному языку студентов МТ факультета
Челябинск Издательский центр ЮУрГУ
ББК Ш143.21–923 Б432
Одобрено учебно-методической комиссией факультета лингвистики
Рецензенты: к.п.н. М.Г. Федотова, к.п.н. Н.А. Шаламова
Белик, Т.И. Б432 Английский язык: учебное пособие по профессионально-ориентированному обучению иностранному языку студентов МТ факультета / Т.И. Белик, Н.А. Полетаева, А.С. Скоробогатова. – Челябинск: Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2010. – 68 с.
Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов МТ факультета. Пособие рассчитано на завершающий период обучения английскому языку. Цель пособия – формирование иноязычной профессионально- коммуникативной компетенции в чтении. Тексты пособия сопровождаются предтекстовыми, текстовыми и послетекстовыми заданиями, которые призваны формировать грамматическую корректность высказывания и расширять словарный запас по изучаемой специальности.
ББК Ш143.21–923
Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2010
Unit I ENGINEERING Part I I. Read the title of the text and recollect everything you now about engineering and the profession of an engineer. Discuss your answers with a partner. II. Discuss the following questions with a partner. 1. Why have you decided to become an engineer? 2. Do you think that modern society experiences a lack of skilled engineers? Is there no need in so much technical staff nowadays as everything is computerized and one good technician is enough to operate complicated electronic systems? Give your reason. 3. Dwell upon skills, habits and competences that are necessary for engineers. Think about requirements an engineer has to meet while applying for a job?
III. Read the text and decide if the following questions correspond to the information in the text. 1. How is engineering defined? 2. What does engineering deal with? 3. Who gets Master’s or Doctor’s degree? 4. What does mechanical engineering deal with? 5. What are the interests of the research engineer? 6. What are the problems of the technologist? 7. When was a steam engine invented? 8. What is the most important function of the engineer? 9. What are the basic machining processes? 10. What skills should an engineer have? Engineering Engineering is one of the most ancient occupations in history. It is often defined as making practical application of theoretical sciences such as physics and mathematics. Many of the early branches of engineering were based not on science but on empirical information that depended on observation and experience. Engineering is a science which deals with design, construction and operation of structures, machines, engines and other devices used in industry and everyday life. That there is no single meaning of this word makes it sometimes difficult to find the proper Russian equivalents at once. The result of the increase of scientific knowledge is that engineering has become a profession. A profession is an occupation like law or medicine that requires specialized advanced education. Today it requires at least four or five years of university study leading to Bachelor of Science degree. More and more often engineers, especially those engaged in research, get an advanced Master’s or Doctor’s degree. Even those engineers who do not study for advanced degrees must keep up with changes in their profession. A mechanical engineer who does not know about new materials cannot successfully compete with one who does. The engineer typifies the twenty first century. He is making vast contribution in design, engineering and promotion. In the organization and direction of large-scale enterprises we need his analytical frame of mind. Engineers design and make machines, equipment and the like. Such work requires creative ability and working knowledge principles. The engineer must also have an understanding of the various processes and materials available to him and could be working in any of the following areas: the organization of manufacture, research and development, design, construction, sales and education. The principal work of the engineer is design. He has to design products, machines and production systems. Like the research engineer, the engineer asks “why? ” Like the technologist he is also concerned with “how? ” The interests of the research engineer are in the area of applied science and research. The technologist, on the other hand, works in the real world of specific things and concrete objects. His problems are practical. The engineer must combine many of the characteristics of the scientist, research engineer and technologist. He must have basic knowledge of sciences and understanding of the abstract techniques of the research engineer and should know much of the technology employed by technologists. The most important function of the engineer is to integrate the work of the essential triangle. His interest must be in combining the abstract theoretical world and the technical-practical world. In the 21st century the engineer has at his command many sources of power. He wants to make machinery automatic.
Part II I. You are going to read three texts about engineering. Decide which of the headings (1 - 6) best correspond to each text (A, B, C). Explain your choice of headings. There are some extra headings that you don't need to use. 1. Industrial revolution 2. History of mechanical engineering 3. The origin of the term “engineering” 4. Relationships with other disciplines 5. Main branches of engineering 6. Education of mechanical engineers II. Read the texts again more slowly. For information 1 - 10 choose the appropriate text A, B, C. 1. The definition of the term “engineering” 2. The difference between scientists and engineers 3. Subdisciplinces of engineering 4. The origin of aeronautical engineering 5. The origin of the term “engineering” 6. Engineering science 7. New branches of engineering 8. The appearance of the term “civil engineering” 9. The interaction of sciences and engineering practice 10. The definition of mechanical engineering Text A Engineering is the discipline and profession of applying technical and scientific knowledge and utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that safely realize a desired objective and meet specified criteria. Engineering is defined as follows: “The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions”. The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects. The term “engineering” itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word “engineer”, which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine'er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to “a constructor of military engines”. In this context, now obsolete, an “engine” referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical device used in war (for example, a catapult). The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.” Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical Text B Science “Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been”. (Theodore von Ká rmá n) There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice. In engineering, one applies science. Both areas rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for practical action based on those interpretations. Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. In the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists. In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It, Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation. Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born. Scientists and engineers make up less than 5% of the population but create up to 50% of the GDP.
Text C
Engineering, much like science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with different areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer’s career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Historically the main branches of Engineering are categorized as follows: - Aerospace Engineering. The design of aircraft, spacecraft and related topics. Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more modern term that expands this discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the 19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1920s saw extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of World War I military aircraft. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. - Chemical Engineering. The conversion of raw materials into usable commodities and the optimization of flow systems, especially separations. Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. - Civil Engineering. The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure, bridges and buildings. - Electrical Engineering. The design of electrical systems, such as transformers, as well as electronic goods. Electrical Engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of Electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of Electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering speciality. - Mechanical Engineering. The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as engines, powertrains, kinematic chains and vibration isolation equipment. The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern Mechanical Engineering. The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. With the rapid advancement of technology many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as Computer Engineering, Software Engineering, Nanotechnology, Molecular Engineering, Mechatronics etc. These new specialities sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics and Electrical and Computer Engineering. For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics. Text D Text E I. Read the text about history of mechanical engineering and find answers to the following questions: 1. What influenced mechanics in ancient Greece? 2. Who invented a seismometer? 3. Who was the first to develop an escapement mechanism? 4. What era is called Islamic golden age? 5. What is Islamic golden age famous for? 6. When and where did mechanical engineering become a separate field within engineering?
Applications of mechanical engineering are found in the records of many ancient and medieval societies throughout the globe. In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC) and Heron of Alexandria (10–70 AD) deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition. In China, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears. The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020–1101 AD) incorporated an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before any escapement could be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as well as the world’s first known endless power-transmitting chain drive. During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called islamic golden age, there have been remarkable contributions from muslims in the field of mechanical technology, Al Jaziri, who was one of them, wrote his famous “Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices” in 1206 presented many mechanical designs. He is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as crank and camshafts. During the early 19th century in England and Scotland, the development of machine tools led mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. The first British professional society of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847 thirty years after civil engineers formed the first such professional society. In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Field of mechanical engineering is normally considered the broadest of all engineering disciplines. Work of mechanical engineering can be seen from the bottom of the oceans to the farthest boundaries of space which man has ever been able to reach. Text F Read the text about education of mechanical engineers and find answers to the following questions: 1. What is the main difference in mechanical engineering programs in North and South America? 2. Why are the most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs in the USA accredited by the Accreditation Board of Engineering? 3. What are postgraduate degrees of mechanical engineers?
Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In China, India, and North America, mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five years and result in a Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Technology (BTech), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng), or Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc.) degree, in or with emphasis in mechanical engineering. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither BSc nor BTech programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is “Mechanical Engineer”, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In the U.S., most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to ensure similar course requirements and standards among universities. The ABET web site lists 276 accredited mechanical engineering programs as of June 19, 2006. Mechanical engineering programs in Canada are accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), and most other countries offering engineering degrees have similar accreditation societies. Some mechanical engineers go on to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, Master of Science, Master of Engineering Management (MEng.Mgt or MEM), a Doctor of Philosophy in engineering (EngD, PhD) or an engineer’s degree. The Master’s and engineer’s degrees may or may not include research. The Doctor of Philosophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.
Part III III. You are going to read the text about the Industrial revolution. Choose from the list A-E the sentence which best summarizes each part of the text. There is one extra sentence that you do not need to use.
A. It was Louis-Augaste Blanqui who introduced the term “Industrial Revolution” in the 1830s. B. The greatest innovations of the Industrial Revolution were made in textile industry, iron founding and the invention of a steam engine. C. It was James Watt who invented the improved steam engine. D. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society: almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way. E The causes of the Industrial Revolution were the increase of a workforce, less labour, intensive production in agriculture, the migration of population to cities, the development of international trade, creation of financial markets, the scientific and technological revolution.
Text A Industrial Revolution
1. The effects of the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, production and transportation changes had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way. In the later part of the 1700s there occurred a transition in parts of Great Britain’s previously manual-labour-based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) brought up the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was great. The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. 2. The term Industrial Revolution The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was common in the 1830s. Louis-Auguste Blanqui in 1837 spoke of la ré volution industrielle. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of “an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society”. 3. The causes of the Industrial Revolution The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated. The Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the spread of disease was lessened, thereby preventing the epidemics common in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly, leading to a larger workforce.The British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories. The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. 4. The greatest innovations of the Industrial Revolution The beginning of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, made in the second half of the 18th century. These innovations were made in textile industry, iron founding and the invention of a steam engine.
Text B Steam power Read the text about the development of a steam engine and fill in the chart below:
The improved steam engine invented by James Watt was initially mainly used for pumping out mines, but from the 1780s was applied to power machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not available. The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution; however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines. The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used as in numerous water works and tried in a few, but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions. A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. He had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs. Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt’s basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5 kW). The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines. Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Towards the turn of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats. Unit II TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES Part I Technological Process
The real purpose of engineering is to create useful goods and services, to make them better, cheaper, and more abundant. The physical conveniences of our everyday lives are constant evidence of engineers' efforts. Swift and comfortable transportation, instant and widespread communication, efficient appliances, and light and power from electricity are only a few of the conveniences available to us because of the ceaseless endeavor of engineers to transmit ideas into realities. And one of the most important aids to engineers in realizing their goals is metal machining, the cutting or shaping of metals by power-driven machine tools. Objects can be made from metal by a number of processes. Among them are founding, forging, forming, rolling, welding, and cutting. Metal machining includes the cutting processes. An article can often be made by any of several processes. Sometimes the most convenient method is chosen, but normally that process is selected that produces the required results at the lowest cost. Metal machining is advantageous in many cases. The basic machine tools are versatile, and almost any piece can be made with them. Large amounts of material can be removed by machining when necessary, and pieces can be cut off parent material or separated from each other without excessive waste. Parts can be machined from standard shapes like bars and places. Machining is not limited to make parts in small quantities. It has advantages for large as well as small quantity production. Surfaces can be machined to almost any degree of accuracy. In fact, the most accurate surfaces can be obtained at reasonable cost only by machining methods. Parts that are formed roughly by other processes, like founding and forging, normally have some or all of their surfaces refined by machining. For instance, most engine blocks are cast, and then their cylinders, faces, and bearing surfaces are machined. Certain machining processes, like grinding, are capable of finishing the surfaces of very hard substances. In all metal cutting operations an edged tool is driven through material to separate chips from the parent body. Metal may be cut by simple hand tools such as hammer and chisel, file, saw, or stone. At one time such tools were about the only means available for cutting metals. Obviously the articles cut from metal solely by hand tools were few and crude. Such methods are slow and laborious and require great skill to guide the tools to produce true surfaces. With the advent of the industrial revolution, the invention and development of devices like the steam engine and textile machinery called for faster and more accurate methods of cutting and forming metals. Machines were devised to apply power to metal cutting and hold and move workpieces surely and precisely. These superior tools were given the name of machine tools, in contrast to hand tools, and the workdone by them was called metal machining. The planing, turning, drilling, and boring machines came into being early. At first it was considered quite an accomplishment just to make a few articles of metal; later the demand arose for quantity production. Machining methods were applied to firearms and clocks and to new inventions, like the reamer and the sawing machine. Other machine tools like the milling machine, turret lathe, and grinding machine were developed to cut metal faster, reduce labor, and bring about greater precision. To meet the demands of the present century for production in very large quantities, highly specialized and automatic machine tools have been developed. Up to the present time the improvement of machine tools and machining methods has gone steadily forward and gives no sign of faltering.
II. Find English equivalents to the following Russian words in the text: 1) преобразовывать (v) 6) металлообработка (n) 2) литейное дело(n) 7) отливка (n) 3) родственный материал (n) 8) подшипник (n) 4) шлифовка (n) 9) трудоемкий (adj) 5) башенный токарный станок (n) 10) обработанный.(adj)
III. Match the word from two columns with its antonym: 1) abundant a) imprecision 2) ceaseless b) unhandy 3) advantageous c) one-sided 4) convenient (about instrument) d) discontinuous 5) versatile e) poor 6) accuracy f) disadvantageous
IV. Match the words with their definitions: 1) appliance a) a tool used for cutting shaping metal, wood etc, usually run by electricity 2) chisel b) a process of reducing to small particles by pounding or abrading 3) grinding c) a tool for working wood consisting of a flat steel blade with cutting edge attached to a handle 4) founding d) a device fitted to a machine or tool to adapt it for a specific purpose 5) machine tool e) a process of metal casting by melting and pouring into a mold
Part II Text A The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, broachingand sawing. Turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tools used in turning. Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting edges against the workpiece. Milling machines are the principal machine tool used in milling. Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges into contact with the workpiece. Drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but not uncommon on the lathes or mills. Miscellaneous operations are operations that strictly speaking may not be machining operations in that they may not be chip producing operations but these operations are performed by a typical machine tool. Burnishingis an example of a miscellaneous operation. Burnishing produces no chips but can be performed at a lathe, mill, or drill press.
Text B An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to create a finished product. A finished product is a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that work piece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For example, a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so that cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the required diameter. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and grinding tools. Many of these techniques are used in woodworking. More recent, advanced machining techniques include electrical discharge machining (EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser, or water jet cutting to shape metal workpieces. As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which consists of one or more workrooms containing major machine tools. Many businesses maintain internal machine shops which support specialized needs of the business. Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Besides the obvious problems related to correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct surface smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, dull tool, or inappropriate presentation of a tool. Part III Unit III Machine Tools Part I A B 1) workpiece a) to produce 2) to vary b) often 3) movement c) part 4) frequently d) to drive 5) to power e) to change 6) shop f) workshop 7) to generate g) motion IV. Read the text again and find English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations:
V. Match the words with their definitions: 1) machine tool a) an object with a simple design that you hold and use to do a particular job; a hammer or drill 2) lathe b) a machine that polishes smth or makes smth sharp by rubbing it on or with a rough hard surface 3) grinding machine c) a tool for cutting or shaping materials, driven by a machine 4) tool d) a machine that shapes pieces of wood, metal, by holding and turning them against a fixed cutting tool 5) milling machine e) a machine for grinding or crushing a solid substance into powder.
Part II Text A Lathe Text B
Grinding machine Text C Milling Machine Part III History of Machine Tools
You are going to read the text about history of machine tools. For questions 1-8 choose the answer (a, b, c or d) which you think fits best according to the text. 1. The birth of modern engineering industry is a) the production of military devices. b) the production of textile machines. c) the manufacture of electrical devices. d) the manufacture of metal cutting tools. 2. The use of metal in the production of machines was kept to a minimum a) because of the lack of metal. b) because of the lack of skilled craftsmen. c) because it was difficult to manipulate metal. d) because there were a lot of machine tools. 3. First machine tools appeared in a) Japan b) England c) the USA d) France 4. Why was not wood framing successful? a) because it was difficult to change dimensions b) because temperature and humidity did not change c) because there were no skilled craftsmen d) because of the lack of wood 5. How was metal first worked? a) with animal power b) with hammers, files, scrapers c) with the help of electricity d) with machine tools 6. What was the first large machine tool? a) the milling machine b) the shaping machine c) the cylinder boring machine d) the planing machine 7. What helped to develop machine tools in the 19-th century? a) textile industry b) military production c) chemical industry d) agriculture 8. Henry Maudslay was engaged in: a) agriculture b) textile industry c) the Royal Navy d) mechanical engineering The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without machine tools, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called “clock work” because of the metal spindles and gears they used. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machines were built by various craftsmen, carpenters made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. A good example of how machine tools changed manufacturing took place in Birmingham, England, in 1830. The invention of a new machine by William Joseph Gillott, William Mitchell and James Stephen Perry allowed mass manufacture of cheap steel pen nibs; the process had been expensive. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but they required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, production was very laborious and costly. Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. The planing machine, the slotting machine and the shaping machine were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolution. Military production had a hand in the development of machine tools. Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships’ pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These were all metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement. Unit IV METALS Part I A B 1) characteristic of a) conductivity 2) to prevent b) positive ions 3) thermal c ) their corrosion 4) binding energy d) silvery-grey reflectiveness 5) to form e) of metal
V. Match the word from two columns with its synonym: 1) reflectiveness a) external 2) ductile b) fragile 3) brittle c) luster 4) conduct d) malleable 5) outer e) convey VII. Answer the questions. 1. What is metal? 2. How are metals distinguished? 3. What category of metals have been made by researchers and employed in high-tech devices? 4. What are the ways to prevent corrosion of metals? 5. What are the characteristic physical properties of metals?
Part II III. Answer the questions. 1. Can you enumerate all types of metals? Define them. 2. What did alchemists try to do with base metals in ancient times? 3. What metals are used for coins? 4. Do you know what currency code ISO 4217 means? 5. What metals are better known for their uses in art jewelry, and coinage? 6. What features of metals have led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction? 7. What is thermal conductivity? What is it useful for? 8. What can you tell about special uses of some metals? Part III Gold Gold is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Au (from the Latin aurum) and atomic number 79. A soft, shiny, yellow, dense, malleable, ductile (trivalent and univalent) transition metal, gold does not react with most chemicals but is attacked by chlorine, fluorine and aqua regia. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks and in alluvial deposits and is one of the coinage metals. For millennia gold has been used as money, a store of value and in jewelry. Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics. Gold forms the basis for a monetary standard used by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). Its ISO currency code is XAU. It is the most malleable and ductile metal known; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of one square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Gold readily forms alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to increase the hardness or to create exotic colors. Adding copper yields a redder metal, iron blue, aluminum purple, platinum metals white, and natural bismuth together with silver alloys produce black. Native gold contains usually eight to ten per cent silver, but often much more alloys with a silver content over 20% are called electrum. As the amount of silver increases, the color becomes whiter and the specific gravity becomes lower. Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is not affected by air and most reagents. Heat, moisture, oxygen, and most corrosive agents have very little chemical effect on gold, making it well-suited for use in coins and jewelry; conversely, halogens will chemically alter gold, and aqua regia dissolves it. Here are some amazing facts about this metal. The first one is about the most expensive gold coin in the world. One of the world's rarest and most sought after collector coins, the 1933 Double Eagle, was sold at Sotheby’s auction house in New York on Tuesday 30th July 2002 for the record sum of $7.59 million. The second one is about recycling of gold. Today, at least 15% of annual gold consumption is recycled each year. The next is about the first known piece of gold jewelry In Egypt, gold jewelry and other artifacts have been found in Pharaoh’s tombs dating to around 1500 BC and later. And the last one is about the most famous piece of gold. This has to be the face mask of the boy-king of Egypt (1361-1352 BC), Tutankhamen discovered in his tomb in 1922 by Howard Carter. Unit V Automation Part I Automation Automation is a tTttt process of having a machine or machines accomplish tasks before performed wholly or partly by humans. As used here, a machine refers to any inanimate electromechanical device such as a robot or computer. As a technology, automation can be applied to almost any human endeavor, from manufacturing to clerical and administrative tasks. An example of automation is the heating and air-conditioning system in the modern household. After initial programming these systems keep the house at a constant desired temperature regardless of the conditions outside. The fundamental constituents of any automated process are (1) a power source, (2) a feedback control mechanism, and (3) a programmable command structure. Programmability does not necessarily imply an electronic computer. For example, the Jacquard loom, developed at the beginning of the nineteenth century, used metal plates with holes to control the weaving process. The advent of World War II and the advances made in electronic computation and feedback have certainly contributed to the growth of automation. While feedback is usually associated with more advanced forms of automation, so-called open-loop automated tasks are possible. Here, the automated process proceeds without any direct and continuous assessment of the effect of the automated activity. For example, an automated car wash typically completes its task with no continuous or final assessment of the cleanliness of the automobile.
Elements of an automated system Because of the growth of automation, any categorization of automated tasks and processes is incomplete. Such a categorization can be attempted by recognizing two distinct groups, automated manufacturing and automated information processing and control. Automated manufacturing includes automated machine tools, assembly lines, robotic assembly machines, automated storage-retrieval systems, integrated computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM), automatic inspection and testing, and automated agricultural equipment (used, for example, in crop harvesting). Automated information processing and control includes automatic order processing, word processing and text editing, automatic data processing, automatic flight control, automatic automobile cruise control, automatic airline reservation systems, automatic mail sorting machines, automated planet exploration. A major issue in the design of systems involving both human and automated machines concerns allocating functions between the two. This allocation can be static or dynamic. Static allocation is fixed; that is, the separation of responsibilities between human and machine do not change with time. Dynamic allocation implies that the functions allocated to human and machine are subject to change. Historically, static allocation began with reference to lists of activities which summarized the relative advantages of humans and machines with respect to a variety of activities. For example, at present humans appear to surpass machines in the ability to reason inductively, that is, to proceed from the particular to the general. Machines, however, surpass humans in the ability to handle complex operations and to do many different things at once, that is, to engage in parallel processing. Dynamic function allocation can be seen as operating through a formulation which continuously determines which agent (human or machine) is free to attend to a particular task or function. There are many different reasons to automate. Increased productivity is normally the major reason for many companies desiring a competitive advantage. Automation also offers low operational variability. Variability is directly related to quality and productivity. Other reasons to automate include the presence of a hazardous working environment and the high cost of human labor. Some businesses automate processes in order to reduce production time, increase manufacturing flexibility, reduce costs, eliminate human error, or make up for a labor shortage. Decisions associated with automation are usually concerned with some or all of these economic and social considerations.
IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words and word combinations: 1) automated storage-retrieval system a) запрограммированная команда 2) feedback b) сборочная линия 3) computer-aided manufacturing c) интегрированное автоматизированное (CAM) производство 4) power source d) автоматизированное проектирование 5) assembly line e) автоматизированное производство 6) data f) обратная связь 7) computer-aided design (CAD) g) источник питания 8) processing h) автоматизированная система хранения и 9) computer integrated manufacturing и поиска (CIM) i) данные 10) programmable command j) обработка
V. Match a word in A with its synonym in B: A B 1) to accomplish a) estimate, n 2) endeavor, n b) to go on 3) to complete c) to wish 4) assessment, n d) to decrease 5) to desire e) progress, n 6) to apply f) to finish 7) to proceed g) to use 8) constituent, n h) attempt, n 9) to reduce i) to carry out, to perform 10) advance, n j) component, n
VI. Read the text again and find English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations: 1) способствовать росту автоматизации 2) непрерывная оценка результата 3) качествo 4) передовые формы 5) обработка данных 6) редактирование текста 7) нехватка рабочей силы 8) вредное воздействие окружающей среды 9) гибкость производства VII. Match the words with their definitions:
Part II I. Read five texts about automation and decide which of the headings (1-6) best corresponds to each text (A-E).Explain your choice of headings. There is an extra heading that you don`t need to use.
1. The development of NC machine tools
Text A
Term coined about 1946 by a Ford Motor Co. engineer, used to describe a wide variety of systems in which there is a significant substitution of mechanical, electrical, or computerized action for human effort and intelligence. In general usage, automation can be defined as a technology concerned with performing a process by means of programmed commands combined with automatic feedback control to ensure proper execution of the instructions. The resulting system is capable of operating without human intervention. “Automation” refers more to an ideal for industrial production than any one set of technologies or practices. The word was coined in 1946 by the Ford Motor Company’s vice president, Dale S. Harder, who used it to describe the automatic or semiautomatic mechanical equipment then coming into use for the assembly of automobiles, the machining of automobile parts, and the stamping of sheet metal items such as fenders. While the popular press sometimes described these machines as “robots”, implying a humanlike flexibility of application, the technologies Harder described were designed to perform a single task. Later, the term “automation” was often used to describe computer-controlled (usually programmable) machines that did include the potential to work on various different tasks. What Harder described was the culmination of the evolution of machine production underway for at least a century and was an extension of what had previously called “mechanization”. This mechanization was largely a nineteenth-century phenomenon, involving the deskilling of work or the full replacement of craft workers with machines. This movement was reaching its limits at Ford and elsewhere by 1950, just at the time when university and military researchers were investigating a new technology that combined traditional production machinery, especially machine tools, and the newly developed electronic computer. By the early 1950s, there would be a distinction in engineering circles between “Detroit automation”, relying on purely mechanical means, and computer automation.
Text B
The stimulus for the development of NC machine tools was the military’s desire to produce aircraft parts at a high rate of speed and with high quality control. Also, aircraft and missiles were then being developed which used parts that were extremely difficult to make, and it was believed that a machine could do a better job than even the most skilled machinist. The US Air Force, working closely with engineers at MIT and elsewhere, introduced the first “numerically controlled” (NC) machine tools in the late 1940s. These machine tools used technologies derived from the computer to control the motions of the machine in accordance with a predetermined program. An NC-equipped machine tool could be conveniently reprogrammed whenever necessary, avoiding the inflexibility that was seen as the major pitfall of Detroit automation. Although the early machines did not completely eliminate human labor, they approached the ideal. Later, engineers distinguished these NC tools from so-called computer numerical control (CNC), which received instructions from a general-purpose computer, often linked to the tool by wires. CNC is the standard technology used today, although its commercial success was slow in coming. While the aircraft industry, largely because of military support, widely adopted NC and CNC machine tools by the 1960s, few other industries followed it. Few consumer products were as profitable as aircraft parts, making NC/CNC tools too expensive.
Text C
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