Sevenfold steps leading to liberation

We have seen that in the Advaita-vedanta soteriology deep meditation on one’s self and its identity with Brahman leads to the salvific gnosis of truth. Madhusudana recognises seven steps of yogic stance leading to the realisation of the true nature of self and for these he draws upon the Yogavasistha.⁵³⁴The names of these steps given by Yogavasistha are:

1 fubheccha;

2 vicaraja;

3 tanumanasa;

4 sattvapatti;

5 asaÅ sakti;

6 padarthabhavini; 7        turyaga.

Madhusudana explains them as follows. The first step, namely fubheccha, is the fourfold preparatory practice namely, (1) discriminatory knowledge of what is permanent and what is transitory; (2) total indifference to the this worldly and other worldly enjoyment; (3) acquiring physical, psychological and moral self control; (4) true desire for salvation, (nityanityavastuviveka, ihamutraphalabhoga viraga, famadamadisadhanasampat and mumuksutva), which represent the general preparedness of the mind. The second stage, vicaraja, consists of fravaja and manana. This means the meaningful discussion of Vedantic statements, under the guidance of a preceptor. The third stage is tanumanasa, which is when the aspirant meditates deeply upon Vedantic teachings. This meditation concentrates his mind and enables it to realise subtle realities. The first three states described above, therefore, mean the fourfold Vedantic preliminary practice, ‘sadhana’. Moreover, fravaja, manana and nididhyasana are included in this list and are also considered to be the means for the attainment of liberation. Madhusudana

ADVAITA-VEDANTA SALVATION

makes a further equation. As these three states presuppose knowledge of a pluralistic world, which are characteristic of a waking state (jagrat avastha), they are called the waking state of a seeker of salvation (mumuksu). The fourth state is called sattvapatti, when reality (sattva), namely the identity between jiva and Brahman, becomes revealed to the aspirant by an indeterminate form of knowledge (nirvikalpaka jñ anam). This is for Madhusudana equivalent to the dream state, in that the aspirant realises the falsity of the universe.

The last three of the seven states are the different stages of a person who is released even when he is alive, jivanmukta. Of these, the fifth stage is asaÅ sakti. In this state, the ‘jivanmukta’ practises ‘savikalpaka (determinate) samadhi’ and by that practice his mind experiences ‘nirvikalpaka (indeterminate) samadhi’ marked by complete detachment (asaÅ sakti). This Madhusudana called the state of deep sleep, susupti, insofar as the aspirant voluntarily returns from there to the world of everyday life.⁵³⁵

The sixth stage is known as padarthabhavini. In this state, the jivanmukta lives for a long time in samadhi. He returns to the waking state only when he is aroused only when some other person intervenes. He is held to be worthier than the jivanmukta of the previous stage, for he is more advanced towards final emancipation.⁵³⁶

In the seventh state (‘turyaga avastha’), the jivanmukta remains completely at ease and besides meditation gives up all physical efforts and responsibility towards himself. God keeps him alive and well while the ordinary physical functions are discharged with the help of others. Such a jivanmukta remains settled in integral and transcendental pleasure. After this stage, the jivanmukta never returns to the ordinary world of action. This state results in salvation at death, videhamukti, when, with the total exhaustion of his prarabdha karman, his physical body falls away.⁵³⁷ At the seventh stage, the jivanmukta already becomes identical with Brahman, the absolute bliss.⁵³⁸ It is interesting to note that in this connection Madhusudana accepts the theistic view that at the seventh stage the bodily functions of a jivanmukta are carried out by God Himself. In this connection, Madhusudana cites the Bhagavata to establish that, at this stage, the jivanmukta possesses no consciousness concerning his/her body.⁵³⁹

Thus, Madhusudana classifies the seven stages of the Yogavasistha in a set scheme. This reveals his close acquaintance with the Yogavasistha method of yogic practice. Even when he was deeply influenced by the Caitanya-school of bhakti, he never moved from his tradition of non-dualist Vedantic yoga and its practice.⁵⁴⁰

Jivanmukta

It is perhaps necessary to add a few words about the concept of jivanmukta

(achieving salvation in this life). In the jivanmukta state – when, by the ultimate knowledge of identity between jiva and Brahman, the avidya of the person comes to an end – all the previously acquired karma of that person together with his future karman, are destroyed. However, even then he cannot be completely free

ADVAITA-VEDANTA SALVATION

from the influence of avidya, since even this ultimate knowledge cannot destroy his prarabdha karman, which is exhausted only by enjoyment (bhoga).⁵⁴¹ Thus, although the concealing power (avaraja-fakti) of avidya becomes discarded by ultimate knowledge, the viksepa-fakti of avidya continues to operate so that the jivanmukta has to retain the body to exhaust his prarabdha karman. So it cannot be said that a jivanmukta aspirant immediately completely merges into Brahman. From the time when the mumuksu’s self-realisation takes place, he is considered to be jivanmukta. But he is considered really released (para-mukta) only when he leaves his body and finally merges into Brahman, the ultimate bliss. The state of jivanmukta is the intermediate stage, lying between a person’s self-realisation and the ultimate merger into Brahman. At the jivanmukta stage, even though a person’s avidya does not remain, its impression (saÅ skara) does. This impression is termed avidyalefa, which Madhusudana explains as the akara, that is, a form of avidya. This is the power of projecting illusory objects (viksepa fakti) of avidya which continues until the end of jiva’s prarabdha karman – the final emancipation from the bodily bondage.⁵⁴² The final stage of a jivanmukta is the seventh state of knowledge as described earlier. The culmination of this state is disembodied liberation (videha-mukti).⁵⁴³ Videha-mukti is not described as a separate state of knowledge because at that time no separate existence of the jiva can be detected, since jiva completely merges into Brahman, the absolute bliss. For Madhusudana even this seventh stage can be called videha-mukti, insofar as the jivanmukta has no consciousness of his physical body and surroundings; and all his physical functions are performed with the help of others. At this stage, the existence and non-existence of the physical body do not feel any different to the jivanmukta. Indeed, the pluralistic world and the sense of all diffentiation become non-existent to him.⁵⁴⁴

Madhusudana does not believe in the Madhva’s view of different gradations of mukti, namely salokya, samya, sarupya and sayujya (considered to be the most superior of the four). Madhusudana contends that of these four, only sayujya-mukti is para-mukti, the others being only conditional emancipations (apara-mukti).⁵⁴⁵ As stated in the fruti ‘He who knows Brahman attains ultimate reality’ (brahmavidapnoti param).⁵⁴⁶ This attainment means identification of jiva with Brahman, so sayujya should also mean being Brahman itself.⁵⁴⁷

It may be noted here that the Bhagavata Puraja accepts these different grades of salvation to be identical with Brahman.⁵⁴⁸ But for Madhusudana, the non-dualist Vedantin, these concepts are unorthodox and so he rejects these. Even when explaining his concept of bhakti, which very much follows the Bhagavata, he remains silent on this topic.

8

BHAKTI

The concept of bhakti

In the previous seven chapters I have given a synopsis of Madhusudana’s own exposition of the philosophy of non-dualistic Vedanta. I have purposely elaborated on his views on the concept of avidya, that is, mistaken knowledge, because the dualist Vedantins refused to accept FaÅ kara and his followers’ view of non-duality and refuted the notion of avidya. For the opponents it is but a negation of valid knowledge and not an ontological phenomenon as non-dualists suppose it to be. Madhusudana defended avidya.

It should now be clear that Madhusudana, a great philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta, took over the responsibility of rescuing his system from the damaging criticisms of all dualist philosophers who considered non-dualism to be incoherent and going against the teaching of the Scriptures. He specially addressed the Madhva teacher and philosopher Vyasatirtha. His fierce attack against the nondualist Vedantins almost shattered the upholders of this latter school of Vedanta. Vyasatirtha in his Nyayamrta attacked every important argument, proposed by the non-dualist school in favour of the existence of avidya/ajñ ana and thereby demolished the theory of non-duality of the FaÅ kara school. Madhusudana accused the Madhva Vaisjavas to be false Vaisjavas.⁵⁴⁹ However, it is obvious that he considered himself a Vaisjava, albeit, the right type of Vaisjava. Clearly the concept of bhakti played a vital role in the philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati. As a prominent teacher of the non-dualist vedanta philosophy, he was anxious to uphold the monistic views of that school of soteriology. He firmly upheld that the realisation of Brahman is the immediate source of salvation. Such realisation instantly removes all experience of duality and the idea of a self as a separate entity from Brahman.⁵⁵⁰ But paradoxically, he was personally deeply influenced by his contemporary Vaisjava views, which was a dominant religion in Bengal where Krsja Vasudeva is held as the supreme God.

He obviously knew Fri Caitanya’s teachings as well as the teachings of the

Bhagavata Puraja (BhP). In his exposition on bhakti in the Bhakti-rasayana he used the Bhagavata Puraja as his scriptural source and illustrated each of his views with extensive quotations from that text.

We do not know if he ever met Rupa Gosvami or his brother Sanatana Gosvami or their nephew Jiva Gosvami. Nor do we know if he ever read any of their works. He expanded the BhP theory of bhakti-rasa (aesthetic enjoyment of bhakti), in the conventional literary way, ⁵⁵¹ as did the above-mentioned three exponents of the Gaudiya Vaisjava school of bhakti. Thus it is clear how deeply BhP influenced

Madhusudana’s Vaisjava theology. His commentary on the first verse of the BhP shows an independent approach to the non-dualistic metaphysics and does not quite resemble Fridhara. Probably he was familiar with the exposition of bhakti in the Muktaphala by Vopadeva along with Hemadri’s commentary. The BhP amalgamated the Alvar and other south Indian Vaisjava traditions as well as the Pañ caratra theology and philosophy.⁵⁵² The bhakti propagated by the BhP is focused on Vasudeva Krsja. Madhusudana’s chosen deity was also Gopala Krsja or Vasudeva.⁵⁵³ But one should not forget his philosophical background, and, although it was passionate love for his deity he sought after, he still followed Ramanuja’s bhakti-yoga or upasana in his attempt to define bhakti. However, his personal feelings was clearly always closer to the passionate love for Gopala Krsja than to the sedate bhakti-yoga of the earlier Pañ caratra tradition.⁵⁵⁴

A brief review of the historical development of the later concept of bhakti, which influenced Madhusudana most, may make my point clear. I start with the most important work on bhakti, namely, the Bhagavata Puraja, which has influenced almost all later theologians of Vaisjava bhakti. The BhP has defined bhakti in such a way that this mystical and often, passionate experience is elevated to the position of the ‘goal’ that a follower of bhakti aspires to achieve.

The BhP concept of bhakti

The BhP has defined unqualified (nirguja) bhakti as a stream sweeping the mind

(manogati) along towards the Supreme Person (Purusottama), that is, Narayaja.⁵⁵⁵ This stream begins to flow at the slightest reference to the Lord and having begun, cannot be interrupted by any extraneous consideration. Just as the water of the Ganges flows uninterruptedly and inevitably towards the ocean, so the mind flows inexorably towards Krsja Vasudeva. This flow is not motivated by any expectation of reward nor is it vitiated by any awareness of duality. In fact, such unqualified bhakti is like the instinctive reaction to a stimulus. Totally devoid of any motive (ahaituki) and uninterrupted (avicchinna), it is a spontaneous (svabhaviki) and innate (avyavahita) experience of Reality.⁵⁵⁶

Unlike the unconditional flow of the mind, which operates from instinct alone, worship of God is usually a voluntary act. A particular goal might motivate such worship, or a higher sense of duty may bring it into operation.⁵⁵⁷ In either case it is still voluntary; though worship that also acts as a fulfilment of a duty is of a higher order than that prompted only by personal motives. Compared to the instinctive and unqualified (nirguja) bhakti, bhakti as a voluntary process is of inferior quality insofar as it depends upon the voluntary will of the worshipper and does not flow towards God automatically, without stress or strain. In other words, in the former the worshipper’s ego remains active whereas in the latter it is merged into the personality of God.

The BhP further classifies bhakti into two categories; borne out by an observation of the BhP that bhakti itself produces bhakti.⁵⁵⁸ The commentator Fridhara explains the first bhakti as a process (sadhana), that is, the practice of bhakti and the other as the premalaksaja bhakti (bhakti that is defined as passionate love), that is, the bhakti that is a devotee’s soteriological goal (sadhya).

Concept of bhakti in the Bhakti-sutras

There are two famous Bhakti-sutras – the Fajdilya-bhakti-sutra (FBhS) and the

Narada- bhakti-sutra (NBhS). We can infer that the FBhS preceded the NBhS because while the latter refers to the former with some reverence a number of times, there is no mention of NBhS in the FBhS. Like the BhP and BhG, these two are sometimes taken as authoritative works on bhakti. I take up these two Bhakti-sutras, not because of their antiquity, (they are obviously late and certainly later than BhP), but because they have made an attempt to introduce bhakti as a Fastra in the model of the six Darfana. These two sutras are the first systematic presentation of the doctrine with definitions, etc. They depicted bhakti with reference to God Vasudeva and described Him as the object of supreme loving attachment (paranurakti).

Bhakti is defined in the FBhS as the supreme love for the Lord (Ifvara).⁵⁵⁹ The commentator Bhavadeva explains that the love, whose object is Ifvara, is of the highest kind.⁵⁶⁰ When the object of love is a limited and imperfect human being, then that love also remains limited and imperfect. Conversely, when the object of love is the absolute and infinite Ifvara, it then becomes the greatest of all forms of love. Thus bhakti is primarily the supreme love for the Divine, a view confirmed by Narada, who takes bhakti to mean supreme passionate love (parama-prema).⁵⁶¹

Fajdilya-bhakti-sutra also accepts another sense of bhakti, which he calls the secondary (gauji ) sense of the term ‘bhakti’. In its secondary sense the term includes such devotional acts of piety as listening to the Lord’s glory (fravaja), singing God’s eulogy (kirtana) and so forth as listed in the group of ninefold acts of bhakti in the BhP.⁵⁶² These devotional acts are quite distinct from ‘bhakti’, in the primary sense of the term, namely, supreme love for the Lord (paranurakti). The devotional acts are deemed secondary because they only purify the devotee, which help to make him/her ready for receiving divine grace. Only then the devotee is capable of feeling the passionate love for the Lord. This is the goal of a devotee’s devotional acts and aspirations. Once the love is dawned, gradually it saturates him/her through and through. Totally immersed in God, all other empirical awareness recedes from the devotee’s mind.

Bhakti as conceived by the Gaudiya (Bengali) Vaisjavas

The Bengal school of Vaisjavism, was propounded by the followers of Fri Krsja Caitanya – the Gosvamis who mainly resided in Vrndavana, a place near Mathura and haloed by the mythological exploits of Krsja, the Lord of all. A quick look at their definition of bhakti should put Madhusudana’s views in proper perspective. I shall mainly deal with the Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu, a monumental work by Rupa

Gosvami, one of the eldest of these Vrndavana Vaisjava scholars and his nephew Jiva Gosvami, the great commentator of the BhP and other important works of theology of this school.⁵⁶³

The best type of bhakti, according to Rupa Gosvami, is constantly practising with one’s body, speech and mind, only such actions that just concern Krsja and are agreeable to Him (anukulyena krsjanufilanam).⁵⁶⁴

Jiva Gosvami explains that this constant practice involves both ordinary actions and mental disposition. These should have no selfish motive. It is not vitiated by the dry metaphysical vision of ultimate Truth, nor is it restricted to the performance of duties enjoined by religious texts (anyabhilasitafunyaÅ jñ anakarmadyanavrtam).⁵⁶⁵ This mental disposition is simply a natural and innate state of a devotee’s personality.

Such spontaneous bhakti cannot be cultivated in the ordinary way as one may cultivate an attitude of mind. Such a disposition of devotional mind appears only through the divine grace and indeed a manifestation of God’s essential power (svarupa-fakti). Thus, bhakti is totally different from ordinary emotional feelings in that these are manifestation of maya, God’s power of delusion. Bhakti is therefore, according to this school, an eternal principle operating in the devotee for all time to come.⁵⁶⁶ As creatures are essentially not distinct from God, and as bhakti is identical with God’s intrinsic power, bhakti as the essential divine principle always abides in all individuals. But they are not usually aware of this fact. After realising this principle through divine grace the devotee thenceforth, never loses sight of it. Bhakti grows spontaneously until the individual is completely immersed in it. It should be remembered that this bhakti is in fact prema-bhakti (passionate love for God), the taste of which is the goal of all devotees.

Rupa Gosvami classified bhakti into three categories: (1) sadhana-bhakti, that is, bhakti that is instrumental to generate true bhakti, the goal of a devotee; (2) bhava-bhakti, that is, a permanent mental state of the devotee’s love for God; and (3) prema-bhakti, that is, ecstatic love for god which is a devotee’s ultimate goal.⁵⁶⁷ It should be noted here that the second and the third categories are but two aspects of their soteriological goal, sadhya-bhakti, which are in fact a person’s innate nature.

Bhakti as religious practices (Sadhana-bhakti) originates through the purposive operation of the sense-organs emulating feelings of respect and total trust in God’s mercy. In other words, sadhana-bhakti consists in physical acts of the devotee to express his/her feelings of bhakti, that is, actively pursuing devotional acts which are instrumental in achieving direct realisation of sadhya-bhakti.

Although expressions of sadhana-bhakti of Rupa Gosvami are psycho-physical acts, yet an attraction (fraddha), of the devotee’s mind towards Lord Krsja endures through them all. It may vary according to the personality of the devotee, but fraddha is the seed of all bhakti.⁵⁶⁸ Jiva Gosvami describes such a focusing of mind on God as tatsammukhya (approaching Him face to face). He further states that the term sammukhya is the same as upasana, which encapsulates both worship and deep meditation on God. The purpose of upasana is to realise God, which is the first stage of prema-bhakti and thus bringing about an end to suffering.⁵⁶⁹

Sadhana-bhakti is of two kinds, vaidhi and raganuga. Vaidhi-bhakti covers the performance of rites prescribed by the religious texts (fastra). The devotee performs these out of respect to the fastras and out of devotional faith and a sense of duty, but not through personal and impulsive attachment (raga).

Raganuga, on the other hand, is inspired by and akin to the devotional love which the mythical people of Vrndavana possess for Krsja. The latter is called ragatmika-bhakti, the strong attachment and passionate desire a lover possesses for the object of his/her love.⁵⁷⁰ Raganuga-bhakti not only follows this type of love but also seeks to share the bliss experienced in ragatmika-bhakti. Jiva Gosvami maintains that such activities as fravaja, manana and nididhyasana, that is, the soteriological practices of the seekers of the realisation of Brahman, are included in upasana. As such they are also included in the sadhana-bhakti. But the bhagavata-dharmas such as fravaja, kirtana, etc. are close to sadhyabhakti than the Upanisadic injunction on fravaja, manana, etc. because these only lead to the revelation of the true nature of Brahman, the reality, but do not move the realising person into any passion.⁵⁷¹

Constantly practising sadhana-bhakti, the devotee may feel the dawning of bhava-bhakti and this bhakti is a manifestation of the intrinsic power (svarupafakti) of Lord Krsja and is co-terminus with God pervading the creation and creature as their essence. Individuals are not aware of the presence of this fakti, nor of God innate in them. Sadhana-bhakti, especially the raganuga type, opens the practising devotee’s mind, which becomes receptive to the emotions of attraction and desire for Krsja, the first stage of emotional love (bhava or rati). Lord Krsja’s intrinsic power is the same as prema-bhakti and has bliss as its essential nature (hladini). Therefore, when the devotee’s mind receives the vague inkling of this love it softens and saturates the mind not only with the desire to obtain the Lord’s attention, but also to be prevailed upon by Him and to develop ever-increasing intimacy with Him. The devotee falls in passionate love with the Lord. That is why it is also termed rati, or, sexual desire. Though rati being an experience, is self-revealed, it also appears as an object of revelation: it is itself a pleasure to be enjoyed. Nonetheless, it is also the cause of enjoyment for Lord Krsja.⁵⁷² One should however, keep in mind that not merely the practice of sadhana-bhakti can bring about the realisation of rati. Lord Krsja’s grace is the essential prerequisite for that. Sometimes, through the special grace of the Lord, this rati dawns in the devotee’s mind even without any practice of sadhana-bhakti.

Rati culminates in passionate love for God, (prema-bhakti). Jiva Gosvami calls this type of intensely passionate bhakti as priti. In other words, when bhava-bhakti completely saturates the mind through and through and deepens in such a way that a bond of an intimate relationship is established between God, the object of that love, and the devotee, it assumes its mature form, known as prema or priti.⁵⁷³ Here also Rupa Gosvami describes two causes that generate prema-bhakti. One is bhava-bhakti, deepened by the constant and passionate practice of the sadhana-bhakti such as fravaja, kirtana, etc. The other is Lord Krsja’s great divine grace (atiprasada), expressed in His granting His companionship to His favoured devotees. The company of Lord Krsja is said to have generated fully matured prema-bhakti among the gopis (cowherd maidens) of Braja, even though they never practiced any sadhana-bhakti or experienced any first sensation of love in the form of rati. Theirs were from the very beginning prema-bhakti for Krsja.⁵⁷⁴

Jiva Gosvami states that priti has two aspects. On the one hand, it means sukha, or pleasurable experience, an indeterminate rapture, which is too diffuse and indefinable to be attributed to any one object. On the other hand, priti means priyata, a rapturous feeling derived from three conditions. These conditions are (1) enlightenment as to the true nature of love; (2) perpetual submissiveness of the mind to the object of love; and (3) an ever-increasing craving springing from this malleability of the lover’s mind.⁵⁷⁵

In this way Jiva Gosvami elucidates the twofold aspect of priti. One aspect is an enjoyment coupled with knowledge; the other exhibits a voluptuous desire for and attachment to the object of love. His understanding of the interrelation between sadhana-bhakti and prema-bhakti may be described thus: sadhanabhakti generates the knowledge of the supreme Lord. This knowledge, once arisen, automatically destroys all misery. It then generates the consummate love for the supreme Godhead, marked by intense attachment to and desire for Him.⁵⁷⁶

Rupa Gosvami’s own explanation of the three stages of a devotee’s bhakti runs as follows: The primary requisite of the devotee is a well developed trust in God, fraddha, which leads the votary to the company of Vaisjava saints and practitioners. Their example then induces the devotee to the practice of sadhana-bhakti. These practices remove all causes of misery, so that the devotee becomes settled (nistha) on God. It can be deduced from this description and from Jiva Gosvami’s commentary that this really indicates bhakti-yoga of the Bhagavad-gita as well as the BhP, III.25.25. This constant dwelling upon God (bhagavad-nistha) in turn leads to an automatic inclination towards passionate bhakti. Gradually this inclination starts to operate spontaneously, which is conducive to the first awakening of bhava/rati that is, passionate love for God. This then culminates in prema-bhakti. As bhava and prema are both manifestations of one and the same hladini-fakti or, divine bliss (ananda) it gradually engulfs the devotee in rapturous enjoyment of this blissful bhakti.⁵⁷⁷

Rupa Gosvami, naturally drew extensively on the ancient Indian literary theory of rasa that is, the aesthetic enjoyment. In his work on dramaturgy and allied subjects entitled the Natya-fastra, Bharata, (c.300–400 CE), introduced the rasa theory. Since ninth century CE the theory took its important position amongst the authors on literary theories and philosophy of religions in Kashmir who dealt with literature and its aesthetics. The names of Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta top the list and from there it spread all over India. In theology, rasa theory has been thoroughly developed and popularised by the BhP.⁵⁷⁸

Madhusudana’s concept of bhakti

In his exposition of bhakti, Madhusudana follows faithfully the definition of bhakti in the BhP, which has been mentioned previously. For he, too, regards bhakti as a mental mode (vrtti) corresponding to the manogati of the BhP. Such a mode is a continuous flow (avicchinna) of mind’s awareness of God (bhagavad) that arises in a mind that has become totally melted (druta) by love for God. Though the BhP does not expressly referred to this state of the mind as arising at the same time the love for God does, Madhusudana develops the BhP analogy that compares the mind to the water of the Ganges.

Madhusudana maintains that, passionate bhakti springs in the mind by constant practice of bhagavaddharma which is the same as sadhana-bhakti of the Gaudiya Vaisjava theology. At the same time, bhakti melts the mind of the devotee due to his/her great passionate desire for and attachment to God. As a result, the devotee’s experience of passionate bhakti has a deeper and lasting impact on him/her than any other form of experience. His authority is the BhP where it says that such melting of the mind is caused by constantly listening to God’s praise. Madhusudana takes this to be the same as the nine types of sadhana-bhakti, namely, fravaja etc., which he terms bhagavaddharma. Finally he explains that such bhakti only concerns the Lord.⁵⁷⁹ I should point out that Madhusudana never really admits that the realisation of sadhya-bhakti is his soteriological goal. The goal remains the self-realisation. Only there is a difference in the mental condition of the individual who experiences the dawning of the final realisation of Brahman as identical with self and the realisation of the true nature of God (bhagavan). In the case of the akhajdartha-citta-vrtti revealing Brahman’s identity with self, the experiencing individual’s mind is completely free of any emotion. But in the case of bhakti-vrtti revealing God, the experiencing individual’s mind is saturated by divine love. Moreover, Brahman, the bliss is actually the passionate love (prema) the individual experiences.

Two elements of this definition are noteworthy: (1) the melting of the devotee’s mind which results from the practice of Fravaja etc.; and (2) bhakti is a mental mode and hence a cognitive process that captures God’s reflection (pratibimba). Further, it is a constant flow of this awareness towards God. The first element is important to understand the rasa theology of bhakti while the second one is close to the notion of bhakti-yoga greatly elaborated in Madhusudana’s commentary on the BhG. Ramanuja (eleventh century CE) introduced the latter concept of bhakti⁵⁸⁰ and since then it has exercised wide influence on the Vaisjava theology. The former concept was widely explored by Vaisjava theologians nearer to Madhusudana’s time – for instance, the followers of Fri Krsja Caitanya. Thus our author tried to combine the notions of emotional devotion and upasana that included, perhaps, the ritual practices, but heavily emphasised on the practice of one-pointed meditation. He insisted on combining upasana with ecstatic experience of love. We shall try to see how far he was successful in this effort.

Madhusudana’s own exposition of bhakti may be summarised as follows: by the practice of ninefold bhakti, fravaja, etc. the votary’s mind melts. Such a melted mind spontaneously develops an uninterrupted flow of consciousness fixed on the Supreme Lord. This constant flow of one-pointed mental awareness of God drives away all other empirical knowledge with their source maya, thus removing all sufferings. The devotee’s innate propensity for loving God increases by the intimate knowledge of God’s divine blissful nature, and swiftly brings about in him/her the ecstatic state of divine aesthetic enjoyment of bhakti. This is the soteriological goal of a devotee. The devotee not only realises God’s true nature but also enjoys that realisation. Although, this may imply a notion of separate identity of the devotee from his/her beloved God, yet Madhusudana employs all the arguments of his non-dualistic stand to identify the bhakti experience and the content of that experience that is, Lord Krsja to be one and the same. Therefore, in both cases, the experience is the identity of one’s self with the supreme Reality, be it Brahman or Krsja, the embodiment of blissful love.

He differentiates between the realisation of self as Brahman which, according to Advaita-vedanta, releases one from sufferings (mukti), and the realisation of bhakti of the Krsja-devotee which is an ecstatic experience. His explanations run as follows: Bhakti is the soteriological goal of a theist just as gnosis of the true nature of one’s self is the soteriological goal of the Advaita Vedantin. Both the realisations of self as Brahman and bhakti are forms of experience appearing in one’s mind, which is trained into a special mode. The difference between the two modes is that: for the mental mode called bhakti melting of the mind is a precondition and there exists an element of enjoyment in that experience, whereas, the akhajdakara-citta-vrtti, which realises the self as Brahman, is free from all differentiation.⁵⁸¹

Madhusudana introduces an interesting analogy to explain the process of the melting of the mind, which serves as the condition for the rise of bhakti-vrtti that is, the cognition of bhakti. He compares the mind with sealing wax. The sealing wax is solid by nature but it melts when it comes into contact with fire. Similarly, the experiencing mind is, normally, not in a state that readily develops a passion. But when it is stirred by some internal stimuli such as love, anger, fear, affection, joy, grief or compassion, it melts and becomes prone to develop a passion. In other words, the mind is emotionally deeply moved and has the potential for great lasting passion for the object of those emotions. In adopting these stimuli into his discourse, Madhusudana, once again follows the BhP as his authority, where it is said that kindled by any of these, the mind melts.⁵⁸² But Madhusudana puts a note of caution here. He points out that this state of mind requires intensity of feeling and thus should be distinguished from a mere slackening (fithilibhava) of the mind brought about by temporary conditions, which are not adequate to produce the really lasting and overwhelming passionate love for God, (prema-bhakti).⁵⁸³

Madhusudana further explains that when the melted mind of a devotee receives the impression of his/her beloved God with all His transcendental qualities, the impression abides in his/her mind for all times to come, even when the mind is not conscious of any special stimulus. Once imprinted on the melted mind, the divine impression (pratibimba) becomes its permanent attribute. So much so, that even when the mind becomes hard afterwards, or, may even make excursions into other objects, that impression persists.⁵⁸⁴ This permanent imprint of the mind is described in four ways: saÅ skara (permanent impression), vasana (latent impression of the mind), bhava (mode of mind) and bhavana (constant contemplation). All four expressions show different aspects of the experience of bhakti. SaÅ skara and vasana mainly express the quality of the experience being innate to the mind. The expression bhavana naturally connects the mental state to the idea of bhakti-yoga. The term bhava is interesting in connection with the concept rasa or aesthetic enjoyment.⁵⁸⁵

Bhakti-experience reveals God in his glorious full form. This revelation being a reflection, is identical with its prototype, and is therefore itself all-bliss. This blissful permanent mood (sthayi-bhava) of mind is, for Madhusudana, comparable to the mind of an aesthete, which climaxes in rasa. Similarly, bhakti-bhava through practice of bhakti, reaches its climax in ecstatic enjoyment of bhakti-rasa.⁵⁸⁶

When Madhusudana brings in the concept of aesthetic enjoyment (rasa) to explain the nature of bhakti-rasa , he confronts a few problems. Rasa is, states the Natya-fastra (NF), produced through the interplay of various fleeting moods (vyabhicari-bhava), (generated in the mind of the main character of the play, which reinforces his/her dominant mood). This dominant and permanent mood (sthayi-bhava) is aroused and sustained by the determinants (vibhava) – first, the person who is the focus of the dominant mood, and then other congenial elements and expressed through various psychological and physical reactions (anubhava). Vibhava is divided into two categories – the support, that is, the object (alambana-vibhava) of the dominant mood and the elements of excitement (uddipana-vibhava).⁵⁸⁷ To apply this formula to bhakti-rasa, Madhusudana admits that the supporting vibhava of bhakti is Krsja. Therefore, if he claims that the dominant mood that is, bhakti is identified with Krsja, the rasa theory becomes inapplicable. For instance, it is impossible to say that one’s feeling of love is identical with one’s beloved. Therefore, divine love and the focus of that love, that is, the divine, must be separate entities.

Madhusudana answers this as follows: It is true that both the alambana-vibhava and the sthayi-bhava of bhakti share substantially the same identity in the case of both being all-bliss Bhagavat. Still Bhagavat as the alambana-vibhava is the prototype (bimba) whereas Bhagavat, revealed in the bhakti-experience is His reflection (pratibimba). Hence though these are the same entity, in appearance they are as it were, separate. Much the same way as the individual (jiva) and the Lord (Ifvara) though basically one, are treated for all practical purposes as two different realities.⁵⁸⁸ As the bhakti-sthayi-bhava (rati) is thus all-bliss, it is only one further step to conceive it as developing into the all-bliss rasa, which again is the manifestation of Bhagavat in all His glory and sweetness.⁵⁸⁹

Out of allegiance to the literary theory of rasa, Madhusudana tried to establish a link between ordinary rati, which develops into frkgara-rasa, and Bhagavadrati, which develops into bhakti-rasa. In the case of ordinary experience of rati for a person, the experience embraces the person as the essential consciousness (cit) conditioned by the illusory qualities making up the individuality of the beloved person. Thus in epistemological terms, the lover is experiencing rati for the beloved as a form of object-consciousness (visayavacchinna caitanya).⁵⁹⁰ Ordinary rati, therefore, differs from Bhagavad-rati insofar as the former is a reflection of object-consciousness, while the latter is a reflection of pure consciousness in its all-bliss glory, that is, Bhagavat Himself. But both are rati, being the reflection of consciousness on the mind that has already been melted by the heat of passion. Very interestingly, Madhusudana’s sequence of reaching the allconsuming experience of passionate love for the Divine is initially to realise the true nature of the glorious God. This leads the devotee to a state of total detachment (kaivalya) from all empirical phenomena, including his/her individual ego. Both these states fully depend on God’s grace. Having reached kaivalya, the devotee is capable of the realisation of true prema-bhakti.

Thus, Madhusudana clearly states that both rati and bhakti are in fact a single experience arising in a special mode of mind (citta-vrtti). But this remains a determinate experience where the revealed God appears as an attribute of the mind in a special state. Clearly it is not just the mental mode, as we have been previously told.⁵⁹¹ We may assume that the author first followed the Bhagavata tradition of explaining bhakti-rasa. There as we have seen, bhakti is a constant flow of a state of mind (manogati). But as he continues to follow the course of daring exploration into the region of metaphysics and the literary theory of rasa, he lands himself into a spiritual territory whereby bhakti becomes Bhagavat Himself rather than a mere state of mind. This shifting of position can be attributed to his anxiety to see that bhakti should be understood as all-bliss – the experience and the experienced just one integral entity. The concept is not basically different from the experience that reveals Brahman. In both cases, a determinate process of cognition reveals an indeterminate and transcendental experience. Only in the case of bhakti the determinate process of cognition produces the transcendental experience of all-bliss God producing an ecstatic state. Bhakti differs from the revelation of Brahman in that in the latter the experience is undifferentiated while in the former it is a differentiated experience of ecstatic joy.⁵⁹² Nevertheless it is transcendental and beyond the reach of mind which is a product of maya.

Does bhakti-rasa qualify to be called a form of cognition, a gnosis? For our author it certainly does. His description of Bhagavat is ‘essentially gnosis and bliss’(bodha sukhatmakah). He is self-revealed, not just as consciousness but also as all-bliss. Hence bhakti-rasa as identical with Bhagavat is also a self-revealed experience as well as being all-bliss.⁵⁹³

In Madhusudana, therefore, we come across something of a climax in the concept of bhakti. In the BhP, bhakti is a mental mode focused incessantly on God. It is an experience of spontaneous ecstatic joy. In the bhakti-sutras, bhakti is taken as love and attachment, but the precise metaphysical and epistemological implications of this were left unexplored. In the Bengal school of Vaisjavism bhakti is a rapturous knowledge. It was also recognised as an expression (vrtti) of God’s innate blissful power (fakti).

Following the Vivaraja, Madhusudana accepts that, every cognition is a reflection of consciousness on the mental mode rather than the mode alone. Therefore, he arrives at the conclusion that bhakti in its mature state is a revelation of the glorious all-bliss God – a revelation that is not different from what it reveals. He takes a bold step to equate bhakti gnosis with the brahma gnosis and thus he shows a logical distinction between bhakti as a soteriological means (sadhana) and bhakti as the soteriological goal, the sadhya or prema-bhakti.

What is then the epistemologial process of the bhakti-cognition? It is the reflection of Bhagavat on a mode of the melted mind of the cogniser. The difference between the bhakti-cognition and the cognition of self as identical with Brahman lies in the nature of Brahman and Bhagavat. The latter is transcendent and yet qualified with what Ramanuja called God’s auspicious qualities (kalyana guja) as well as with the transcendental qualities (bhaga), while the former is totally devoid of any quality. Therefore, unlike the realisation of Brahman, realisation of Bhagavat, that is, bhakti is a differentiated knowledge. Thus bhakti-experience not only arises in a melted mind, not only it is identical with Bhagavat, but additionally it is a differentiated experience. Being a strict Advaita-vedantin, Madhusudana did not recognise the existence of an innate divine power. He also left alone the question of the enjoyer of the ecstatic bhakti-experience, leaving it to the realm of mysticism.

Coming back to the actual mental process of grasping the form of Bhagavat; Madhusudana explains the genesis of the comprehension of Bhagavat by the mental mode (bhagavat-akarata) in the following way: In every empirical cognition the image in mind has two aspects. As far as the basic comprehension of the indeterminate part of the grasping goes it comprehends ‘something’ which is the locus of all phenomena. But the other aspect of such comprehension is the determinate knowledge of the object as say the cognition of a pot. As far as the indeterminate comprehension is concerned (i.e. in our example ‘this is something’), it is a true knowledge because it indicates something existing is grasped by the mind as the locus of the content of the comprehension. The mind grasps the pot as an existing phenomenon, and Brahman as existence is indeed the locus of that phenomenon. For the devotee Bhagavat as identical with Brahman can replace the latter. The error of cognition occurs in grasping the determinate part of the cognition, namely, a pot, as the pot is a mere product of illusion (maya). When the illusion is gone by grasping the real nature of existence as Brahman or, Bhagavat, the locus of the pot, the pot disappears. Thus grasping the bhakti-experience, which is Bhagavat, the locus of all erroneous experiences caused by maya, the devotee emerges out of the influence of maya which caused all his sufferings, and he/she attains salvation.

Madhusudana further elaborates on the subject of this experience. That leads him to claims that, like the experience of Brahman, bhakti embraces Bhagavat exclusively as just bliss free of any qualification. This experience of bliss is similar to the experience of bliss in deep sleep.⁵⁹⁴ He asserts that the mind naturally grasps the reflection (akara) of Bhagavat. But in the empirical cognition the reflections it grasps are caused by such external causes as the sense organs and the latent impressions retained by the mind of previous experiences and thus the reflection becomes distorted. Mind is able to grasp the reflection of Bhagavat because it is a product of avidya which has Brahman/Bhagavat as its locus. Besides, Bhagavat is the inner controller (antaryami) of all phenomena and pervades (anusyuta) all. Thus once the identity between Brahman and Bhagavat is accepted there is no incongruity in accepting the mind to grasp Bhagavat.⁵⁹⁵

In the empirical state, though the mind grasps Bhagavat in all its cognitive acts, it is not opposed to the appearance of other forms in mind. By the practice of devotional acts (sadhana bhakti) a devotee purifies the mind of all these other farms and impressions. Cleared of all such erroneous forms the mind finally grasps the unimpeded form of Bhagavat. In other words the mind directly experiences Bhagavat. Prior to that the mind, during the devotional practices, gets only an indirect reflection of God. The direct revelation totally settles the mind in God.⁵⁹⁶

In saying this, Madhusudana has created a new synthesis in which the doctrines of monism are reconciled to devotional theories. He recognises sadhana bhakti as a means of eradicating avidya, a removal that leads to ultimate self-realisation. Bhakti, for Madhusudana, is as effective as activities such as fravaja and manana, advocated by the Advaitins.⁵⁹⁷ As bhakti is a form of experience that leads to salvation through self-realisation, knowledge serves, both in the theory of devotion and in the monistic view on salvation (moksa), as the direct cause of salvation from worldly sufferings and from their cause, avidya, the wrong knowledge. But according to the tenets of devotion, salvation is not the summum bonum of human life. Following the BhP, Madhusudana puts divine love above salvation, where divine love at its climax places the devotee in a state of perpetual ecstatic bliss. The devotee enjoys at that stage the ecstasy of supreme love for Bhagavat. As has already been noted, such an ecstatic experience is regarded, by the followers of the BhP, as the highest goal of a person. Madhusudana accepts this view.⁵⁹⁸ The endeavour of the Advaitins ends in achieving identity with Brahman, Brahma-kaivalya, which Madhusudana calls para-mukti, or supreme salvation.⁵⁹⁹

But in the context of bhakti, this indeterminate experience lacks the element of enjoyment (rasa). The successful devotee achieves the determinate experience of the enjoyable All-bliss God, Bhagavat. We shall soon see that the author puts this experience above the experience of undifferentiated Brahman.

In this context, Madhusudana reinterprets Vaisjavite terms such as salokya and sayujya to fit in with monistic thought. He equates sayujya with a lack of differentiation (bhedabhava) between jiva and Brahman. In relation to the highest stage of beatitude (sayujya) he refers to the attainments such as salokya as limited salvation (apara-mukti).⁶⁰⁰ Monistic kaivalya is the identity with Brahman achieved after death, videha-kaivalya where even the tiniest remnant of mistaken knowledge (avidya-lesa), which causes the continuance of the gross body of the jivanmukta, is exhausted. In the description of different stages of the spiritual evolution of the devotee (bhakti-bhumka) in his/her pursuit of bliss, jivanmukti is described as the sixth stage, but videha-kavalya is avoided in order to enjoy the bliss of divine love, bhakti. In order to justify the exposition of the theory of bhakti, Madhusudana points out the difference between bhakti and Brahma-vidya, the goal of the Advaita school. The differences are as follows: ⁶⁰¹

1 Brahmavidya (i.e. akhajdakara-citta-vrtti) is an undifferentiated mental mode (nirvikalpaka-manaso-vrtti), comprehending the non-dual reality (Brahman). Bhakti, on the other hand, is a differentiated savikalpaka mode of a melted mind, having Bhagavat as its content.

2 While the great sentences such as ‘tat tvam asi’ produce Brahma-vidya, activities involving ninefold devotion (navadha-bhakti), that is fravaja, kirtana and the like, are said to bring about bhakti.

3 Brahma-vidya results in the eradication of primordial avidya, the root of all suffering. But bhakti reaches its climax in supreme love (prema) for Bhagavat.

4 Brahma-vidya is a special privilege accorded to some rare individuals, who have achieved four states of mind (sadhana-catustaya; ).⁶⁰² Bhakti, however, is open to all. The melting of the mind is the only prerequisite for the dawning of bhakti.⁶⁰³

Though Madhusudana has thus drawn a series of distinctions between

Brahma-vidya and bhakti, his syncretic mind has yet managed to assimilate

Brahma-vidya into the texture of bhakti and has equally integrated it into the hierarchical evolution of bhakti in its different stages. Madhusudana’s thinking starts its movement in this direction in his commentary on the Bhagavad-gita, where he says that jivanmuktas, being purified by knowledge, develop love for Bhagavat.⁶⁰⁴ In this Madhusudana again confirms the place of the BhP as his main authority.⁶⁰⁵

The eleven stages of bhakti

However, this syncretic attitude assumes a fully fledged form only in the Bhakti rasayana, where he expressed his views by assigning a slightly lower place to Brahma-vidya as a stage in the evolution of bhakti. In order to bring this into a clearer perspective, and also to appreciate the workings of the syncretic mind of Madhusudana, we now propose to deal with the stages of bhakti that culminate in the highest flight of divine love (prema prakarsa). Madhusudana enumerates the stages as follows: ⁶⁰⁶

prathamaÅ mahataÅ seva taddaya-patrata tatah. fraddhatha tesaÅ dharmesu tato harigujafrutih. tato ratyaÅ kurotpattih svarupadhigatistatah. prema-vrddhih paranande tasyatha sphurajaÅ tatah. Bhagavaddharamanisthatah svasmiÅ statgujafalita.

premno’tha parama kasthetyudita bhakti bhumika.⁶⁰⁷

Stage 1: service to the great (mahatam seva). By the great, Madhusudana⁶⁰⁸ means primarily Bhagavat Himself and, secondarily, the devotees of God.

Stage 2: acquisition of the grace of the great (taddayapatrata). Such grace may require endeavour or it may be spontaneously achieved.

Stage 3: a favoured votary develops a taste (ruci) for the practice of spiritual methods (fraddhatha tesaÅ dharmesu) consisting of the ninefold devotion.

Stage 4: the actual practice of the ninefold devotion according to one’s capacity (harigujafruti).

These four stages are exclusively means (sadhana) to achieve the end (sadhya); the following stages are achievements (sadhya), though they allow for still higher stages. In other words, the following stages consist of both sadhya and sadhana:

Stage 5: reception of the reflection of Bhagavat by a mode of the melted mind.

This stage is bhakti in its narrower sense, which Madhusudana has already presented in his definition of bhakti, while the other stages that follow represent the hierarchical maturity of this stage.

Stage 6: svarupadhigati. This stage is practically the same as the Brahma-vidya of the Advaita school and allows three hierarchical sub stages: (1) the realisation of the true nature of jiva as distinct from the gross and the subtle bodies; (2) the realisation of the identification of the true nature of jiva and Brahman, the all-pervading Self; and (3) the realisation of such identification which strengthens detachment (vairagya) to reach its climax (paravairagya).

Stage 7: increase of love in God is when with the dawning of paravairagya the votary becomes overwhelmed with divine love in its ever-increasing intensity.

The stages that follow are ends, as distinguished from the above group of stages, which are, more or less, means.

Stage 8: tasya sphurajam means the direct revelation of Bhagavat, the reality that is all-bliss.

Stage 9: Bhaghavaddharmanistha is the total absorption of the votary in Bhagavat, when all his senses are completely dedicated to the service of Bhagavat.

Stage 10: svasmiÅ stadgujafalita is when due to the devotee’s total absorption in God his/her body manifests the majesty of Bhagavat.

Stage 11: premnah parama kastha is the climax of divine love, characterised by

extreme intolerance of separation, and resulting finally in the surrender of life (prajaparityagavadhi virahasahisjutarupa).⁶⁰⁹

It is evident that bhakti, as defined by Madhusudana at the beginning of his Bhakti-rasayana, is the fifth stage which he describes as the dawning of love and attraction for the Divine (ratyakkurotpatti): in other words, Madhusudana has taken the first four stages preceding this stage as purely the means (sadhana) for the attainment of the experience of bhakti, the fifth stage. Therefore, the usage of the word ‘bhakti’ for the first four stages is secondary.

Madhusudana gives recognition first to service to the great, which according to him leads to the showering of divine grace on the votary. In this way, Madhusudana introduces the doctrine of divine grace in the delineation of his own theory of devotion. Though in conventional Vaisjavism, divine grace is taken to be spontaneous, it appears, from Madhusudana’s exposition, that he believes that as a general rule, service to the great is the cause of divine grace. In some cases, however, Madhusudana admits variations within this rule.⁶¹⁰ Through divine grace the votary develops a taste (ruci) for the practice of spiritual methods consisting in the ninefold devotion (navadha-bhakti). Elsewhere in his BhR Madhusudana observes, in the context of the exposition of one verse of the BhP, that the practice of karma-yoga, consisting in the performance of daily (nitya) and occasional (naimittika) rituals of an initiated devotee, may also bring about the above-mentioned taste (ruci or fraddha). He further states that karma-yoga can lead to both the path of knowledge and the path of devotion.⁶¹¹ Those aspirants whose minds become melted, follow the path of devotion, while the others develop detachment and follow the path of knowledge. Though Madhusudana does not mention karma-yoga in his description of the stages of bhakti, in the light of these comments one might say that he considers karma-yoga and divine grace as the alternative cause of fraddha. But his silence over karma-yoga in the context of the description of the stages of bhakti may be interpreted as his inclination to divine grace in preference to karma-yoga. Madhusudana may be said to have reaffirmed the convention when he thus declared the sovereignty of divine grace in the path of devotion. Madhusudana holds that out of fraddha the devotee begins to perform spiritual exercises consisting of the ninefold devotion described by Pralhada.⁶¹² This ninefold devotion is the immediate cause of ratyakkurotpatti – the sprouting (of the nucleus) of passionate love (for God).

When the Reality that is all-bliss becomes manifest to the devotee, he naturally becomes overwhelmed by such an occurrence. He no longer remains conscious of the external Bhakti, the fifth stage which Madhusudana described at the beginning of the BhR for the purpose of definition. This is elaborated in his enumeration of the next three stages in an interesting manner. First, the sprouting of the divine love (ratyakkurotpatti) gains increasing intensity of love for Bhagavat, resulting in His direct revelation in the mind of the votary. Then, between the stages of the first dawning of rati and the development of intensity of love, Madhusudana inserts the realisation of Self (atman) of the Advaita-vedanta. That means, according to Madhusudana, that rati is intensified by the realisation of the Self. This realisation is not the manifestation of Bhagavat, the reality that is all-bliss, but is the knowledge of reality as pure existence. For, Bhagavat becomes manifest only after the love of Bhagavat has gained intensity. The process whereby the mind receives the form of Bhagavat falls into four hierarchical phases: (1) the sprouting of rati; (2) the realisation of the Self; (3) the intensification of love for Bhagavat; and finally, (4) the manifestation of Bhagavat as all-bliss.

When the reality that is all-bliss, becomes manifest to the devotee, he naturally becomes overwhelmed by such an occurrence. He no longer remains conscious of the external universe and all his activities are absorbed in Bhagavat. As a result of such complete concentration (tanmayata) on Bhagavat, the majesty of Bhagavat becomes manifest in the devotee. In this way Madhusudana recognises the sarsti mukti of the Vaisjavas in his description of the stages of bhakti. The Bhagavat-rati, resulting in the manifestation of Bhagavat, is further crystallised by the spontaneous performance of Bhagavaddharmas and culminates in the perfection (para kastha) of divine love. The climax of divine love is bhakti-rasa and, according to Madhusudana, it is the manifestation of the entirely blissful nature of Bhagavat in all His splendour.

The final stage of bhakti, which Madhusudana describes as premnah para kastha, or the climax of divine love, deserves some consideration here. Madhusudana does not expressly say in this context whether at the time of realisation of this stage the devotee becomes completely identified with Bhagavat, or whether some sort of distinction still remains between the two, as is generally believed in different Vaisjava schools. Madhusudana leaves it to his readers to guess the truth. He does state that long before rati develops into rasa, in fact before rati gains intensity, some process of identification between the devotee and reality is necessary. In other words, he takes this process of identification to be an inevitable prerequisite in the development of bhakti. It can therefore be presumed that the realisation of prema inextricably involves the experience of identification as well. It may be said that while the realisation of this shared identity, associated with the development of rati, was the identification of the devotee with reality manifested as pure Existence (sanmatra Brahma) so it is the case in the realisation of rasa. There is one difference, however, in that in the latter case the devotee finds himself in perfect union with the Reality, manifested as pure Bliss. A confirmed monist like Madhusudana could not have admitted to any other concept. One could take this identification with Bhagavat as a higher type of sayujya-mukti than the sayujya achieved previously when the devotee realised his/her identity with the Reality as pure Existence. That identification is the substance of such realisation of the climax of divine love, as borne out by another fact: Madhusudana describes the climax of prema as marked by the most poignant intolerance of separation from the beloved. In other words, he takes it as the deepest intensity of the sentiment of love, dissolving into what may be described as the perfect union between the devotee and Bhagavat. Indeed, for Madhusudana, intolerance of separation is a basic feature of love in all its manifestations, ranging from rati⁶¹³ to rasa.⁶¹⁴ Underlying all of these emotional stages of intense love, Madhusudana’s conception of bhakti as rasa presupposes a mystical identification of the devotee and Bhagavat. It may be noted here that intolerance (of separation) at its climax, disclosed at the final stage of bhakti, is also recognised as such by Jiva Gosvami. In his Priti sandarbha, he called this state mahabhava⁶¹⁵ – that is the climax of bhava – a word which has its parallel in the word rati employed by Madhusudana.

It is also interesting to observe that Madhusudana, by recognising the identification of the devotee with Bhagavat, the Reality, pledges his allegiance to the literary theory of literary sentiment (rasa). This requires the identification of the enjoyer of rasa with the focus of the aesthetic sentiment (nayaka) as a prerequisite for the revelation of aesthetic sentiment (rasa). Of course, in the case of the literary theory of the enjoyment of sentiment such identification is forged between the substratum (afraya) of rati (for instance, Rama) and the enjoyer (pramata).⁶¹⁶ In the case of bhakti-rasa, however, the process of identification is intended to occur between the devotee, who enjoys, and the object of rati (alambana). However, it may also mean that in the case of bhakti-rasa the substratum, of rati, and its object, are one and the same Reality: Bhagavat. In other words, Bhagavat is all-bliss, in that He Himself realises his own intrinsic sweetness and beauty. Here our author parts company of the Caitanya’s theology by absolutely refusing to acknowledge any distinction (bheda) between God and His devotee.

In his conception of hierarchy in the stages of bhakti Madhusudana relies mainly upon the authority of the BhP. It appears that the structure of his eleven stages of the development of bhakti (bhakti bhumika), is based on one verse of the BhP.⁶¹⁷ Here the Bhagavata clearly states that in the company of the great, one can hear the praises of Bhagavat. These praises, once heard, lead to the unfolding of fraddha, rati and bhakti in progressive order. Thus here we find the hierarchical order of (1) sat prasakga, which is equivalent to mahatam seva of Madhusudana; (2) fraddha; (3) rati; and (4) bhakti, which Madhusudana calls premnah parakastha. Elsewhere the BhP maintains⁶¹⁸ that divine grace is the prerequisite of fraddha and the performance of Bhagavaddharma, consisting of listening to the eulogy of Bhagavat, etc. Hence divine grace underlies all stages of devotion. Again, the BhP states that the performance of paradharma – that is, Bhagavaddharma – is the direct cause of bhakti – that is, rati.⁶¹⁹

These dharmas consist in the ninefold devotion as described in the BhP.⁶²⁰ Madhusudana further maintains, on the basis of the BhP, ⁶²¹ that divine grace is achieved by resorting to the great (mahat), who are compassionate by nature. The compassionate great, out of pity, shower grace on the devotee, which enables the devotee himself to obtain divine grace. We therefore come upon the following hierarchical stages that result in the advent of rati:

1 service to the great, which enables the devotee both to hear the praise of

Bhagavat and to obtain divine grace;

2 divine grace;

3 fraddha in bhagavaddharma; 4  actual performance of such dharma.

In this way, all preliminary sadhana stages, including rati, are found illustrated in the BhP. Madhusudana, by drawing them together and by employing his syncretic genius, knits them into distinct stages whereby their internal hierarchy is brought into a perspective that is logical and clear. The stage after rati is described by the BhP in the verse ‘Like a child who received a toy becomes engrossed in it being oblivious [of everything else] (nyastakridanako valo jadavat tanmanastaya’ etc.⁶²² Madhusudana takes this as the stage of premadadhya, where an everincreasing intensity of love finds expression in the devotee’s being totally unconscious of the external world. In between the stages of rati and premadadhya he places the stages of self-realisation, which are described in the BhP⁶²³ as the spontaneous development of total detachment and the understanding (of the truth as against falsity, cf. Yogasutra I.15 and II. 25), which comes after the dawning of the divine bhakti. Here also Madhusudana exhibits his originality through his arrangement of the succession of stages after rati.

While describing the rasalila, it is also stated by the BhP that the realisation of the all-pervading self as identical with the devotee leads to the heightening of love in the manifestation of Bhagavat.⁶²⁴ But the illustration of the intense love of the gopis for Bhagavat, mentioned in this context, ⁶²⁵ is used by Madhusudana to illustrate the climax of love, the final stage of the devotee.

After the manifestation of Bhagavat the votary becomes completely absorbed in Bhagavat. This condition is stated by the BhP while describing the condition of Ambarisa.⁶²⁶ As a result of such total absorption in Bhagavat the majesty of Bhagavat becomes manifest in the votary. This state is also described by the BhP as more or less a by-product of the stage of total absorption.⁶²⁷ Such absorption culminates in the climax of divine love, which is the goal of the votary.⁶²⁸ Though Madhusudana shows his dependency on the BhP for the condition of the votary in the last three stages, their order as a progression is his own innovation.

Rasa concept of bhakti

Madhusudana accepts prema-bhakti, the climax of divine love, to be a rasa. Hence, to that extent, he has to accept the postulates of the literary theory of rasa.

Following the tradition he has described the permanent mood (sthayi-bhava), vibhava, anubhava and vyabhicaribhava of the bhakti-rasa. Madhusudana takes Bhagavat-rati as the sthayi-bhava of that rasa.⁶²⁹ He further explains that the melting (druti) of mind invests the mind with the capacity to receive a form, in this case the reflection of Bhagavat. Madhusudana recognises the following psychological factors to be independent causes of such melting: ⁶³⁰ sexual love (kama), wrath (krodha), fear (bhaya), affection (sneha), delight (harsa), affliction (foka), compassion (daya) and total detachment arising from complete self-control, Vafikarakhya vairagya.⁶³¹ The mind, when influenced by these emotions, receives the form of the object that excites that emotion. In his conception of the agents of heating (tapaka) that melt the mind Madhusudana draws upon the BhP, ⁶³² where the same factors are recognised as exciting devotion. These psychological factors regulate the nature of melting. The mind varies according to the variation of this melting. Such variation in the nature of the mind itself explains the qualitative variation in the reflection that Bhagavat makes upon it – that is, bhakti as rati.⁶³³

Thus, due to the variation in the nature of the mind, the receptacle of the reflection of Bhagavat, the quality of bhakti also differs in each case. Due to different causes of melting (tapaksa), there are several types of melted mind, and the number of permanent moods (sthayi-bhava) that develop into rasa vary according to the number of types of melted mind.⁶³⁴

1 Thus when love (kama) consisting in desire for union melts the mind two types of sthayi-bhava, the sambhoga-rati and vipralambha-rati, arise according to whether the object of love is present or absent.

2 Wrath⁶³⁵ generated from jealousy (irsya) excites the mind. Such excitement may cause two types of melting, causing also two types of desire: the wish to destroy the object of such excitement and the wish to incur pleasure in an excited mind. In both cases the melting of the mind may receive the form of Bhagavat. In the first case the sthayi-bhava is known as animosity (dvesa), while in the second it is known as rati, resulting in what the commentator points out as vipralambha frkgara of the mana (the lovers’ tiff, ) type.⁶³⁶

3 Fear (bhaya), marked by mental perplexity (vaiklavya), melts the mind; the rati in such a melted mind is known as timid love (bhaya-rati).⁶³⁷

4 Affection (sneha) can be of three kinds: when it concerns a son or daughter it is characterised by the nature of protector and the protected. The second type is marked by the nature of servant and the served. This nature can be indicated by servitude (dasya) or by friendship (sakhya). The third variety of sneha is known as mifra, where both dasya and sakhya exist in combination. The mind, melted by the emotion such as a protector felt for the protected (palyapalaka) develops an indulgent affection (vatsala-rati) concerning Bhagavat. Out of the affection between servant and the served (sevya sevakabhava sneha), preyo-rati arises. The rati arising in the mind, melted by misra rati, is known as priti-rati.⁶³⁸

5 Harsa is marked by exultation of the mind. It is of four kinds. The first kind consists in supreme bliss in the mind that produces the knowledge of the majesty of Bhagavat. The mind melted by such delight (harsa) contains pure rati for Bhagavat. The second kind, is generated by unusual gestures and speech brought about by bashfulness (of a timid person in love). The mind melted by such exhibition of suppressed delight receives the sthayi-bhava known as harsa.⁶³⁹ Observing an extraordinary and magnificent object generates the third kind. Such delight melts the mind, enabling it to receive the sthayi-bhava known as harsa. When the heroes are elated by victory they experience the fourth and last kind of delight. The mind, melted by such harsa, receives the sthayi-bhava known as enthusiasm (utsaha).

6 When, due to the destruction of the beloved, the mind becomes full of sorrow, it melts the mind. The absence of delight in such melted mind is called affliction (foka).⁶⁴⁰

7 Daya means disgust (ghrja), enhanced by the knowledge of the futility of the object of sensual knowledge. It arises when one sees some awful form of human sufferings. In the mind melted by such disgust three kinds of aversion (jugupsa) are generated: stressful (udvegini), agitating (ksobhini) and pure (fuddha).

8 Madhusudana mixes daya with harsa and thus reinterprets the three traditional concepts of dana-vira rasa, daya-vira rasa and dharma-vira rasa. The mind melted by a sense of pity (daya) and attended by enthusiasm of harsa, receives the sthayi-bhava, dayotsaha. Again, the melted mind, prone to great generosity, receives the sthayi-bhava, that is, danotsaha. When the mind melts by the noble desire to protect one’s own religion, it receives the sthayi-bhava known as dharmotsaha.

9 Detachment (vairagya), marked by lack of desire, melts the mind, and the sthayi-bhava existing in such mind is known as fama.

Madhusudana makes a list of eighteen types of sthayi-bhavas, each emerging from an independent tapaka. There are three more sthayi-bhavas caused by (most probably) a combination of two stimulants, such as delight and compassion. He classifies them in three groups: narrow (saÅ kirja), mixed (mifrita) and pure (fuddha).

SaÅ kirja: Among the sthayi-bhavas mentioned above, only a limited number can concern Bhagavat. There are some others that cannot be developed into bhakti rasa. For even though some of them may concern Bhagavat, they do not arouse any pleasing sensation of desire. The rest do not concern Bhagavat at all. These last two types are call saÅ kirja. Accordingly, ferocious (raudra), ferocious and frightening (raudra-bhayanaka), heroic and righteous (dharma-vira), heroic and kind (daya-vira), loathsome (vibhatsa) and equanimity (fanta) are saÅ kirja rasas. Of these, the emotions raudra and raudra-bhayanaka are not pleasing, while the rest do not concern Bhagavat at all. Interestingly, Madhusudana strongly disagrees with Abhinavagupta with regards to fanta-rasa and does not accept it as a rasa.

Mifrita: when more than one basic bhavas combine as one sthayi-bhava, it is known as mifrita and the resulting rasa is also known as mifrita. Among the mifrita sthayi-bhavas Madhusudana recognises seven which concern Bhagavat and develop into bhakti-rasa. These seven bhakti- rasas are classified as kevala-mifra. These are: erotic love (frkgara), compassion (karuja), esteem (priti), fearful, (bhayanaka), fantastic (adbhuta) and heroic generosity (dana-vira). The remaining two mifrita-rasas, comic (hasya) and heroic (vira), Madhusudana does not recognise as bhakti-rasas, because their sthayi-bhavas cannot concern Bhagavat. When a mifrita-rasa concerns some other object, it is termed as saÅ kirja-mifra.

Fuddha: There are three sthayi-bhavas that concern Bhagavat only and so are known as fuddha. The rasas are called vifuddha-bhaktirasas. These are fuddha-bhakti-rasa, preya-bhakti-rasa and vatsala-bhakti-rasa.

Rati

Madhusudana generally uses the term rati for the sthayi-bhavas that develop into bhakti-rasa. He thus underscores the two emotions love and desire as the basis of a permanent mood of mind that develops into bhakti-rasa. Therefore, grief (foka), the permanent mood of sad or tragic (karuja)-rasa, is specifically mentioned as arati, or contradictory to rati. Wonderment (vismaya) and enthusiastic generosity (danotsaha), the sthayi-bhavas of marvellous (adbhuta-rasa) and heroically generous (dana-vira-rasa), respectively, are not mentioned as rati the sthayi-bhava of the bhakti-rasa. Madhusudana lays down two conditions for the generation of rati: First, that the mind must be melted and second, that it must be free from the influence of rajas and tamas; only sattva-guja should occupy the mind.⁶⁴¹ Raudra and raudra-bhayanaka rasas are not bhakti-rasas, because their basic sthayi-bhavas do not arise in a melted mind, ⁶⁴² and also, because they remain under the influence of rajas and tamas. The sthayi-bhavas foka, vismaya and danotsaha, are not called rati, possibly because in those cases too the mind remains influenced by rajo-guja and tamo-guja. It follows that the sthayi-bhavas developing into bhakti-rasa, as described by Madhusudana’s scheme, must be sattvika that is, possessing only sattva-guja. Madhusudana defines rati as a mental state of affection and esteem (priti) arising out of incessant thought of the object of love. It is a pleasurable sensation marked by intolerance of separation.⁶⁴³ The predominance of sattva-guja places rati in a high position and the bhakti-rasa developing from such rati is held to be higher than the bhakti sentiment where rajas and tamas are still present.⁶⁴⁴

Among all kinds of bhakti-rasa, frkgara-bhakti-rasa is held by Madhusudana to be the best. Because the sthayi-bhava of this rasa, that is, rati is of great intensity and the pleasure derived is indeed the highest.⁶⁴⁵ Madhusudana classifies rati as of two kinds: pure, (fuddha) and mixed (vyamifrita). Fuddha rati is the unqualified and totally selfless feeling of the devotee (nirupadhika) and it emerges from listening to the eulogies of Bhagavat. It dawns spontaneously in the mind and develops into bhakti-rasa, without being adulterated by any other rasa. The other type of rati is qualified by having some ulterior motive (sopadhika). It is of three kinds: rati generated by sexual love (kama), rati generating from social relationship (sambhandha) and rati generated by fear (bhaya). When bhakti is mingled with the sentiment of love, it is kamaja (borne of sexual desire). Both affectionate love (vatsala) and love marked by friendliness and eager helpfulness (preyo-bhakti)-rasas are known as sambhandaja (borne of social relationship). Priti and bhayanaka-bhakti-rasas are bhayaja (borne of respect and deferential fear). If all the four types of emotions, that is, fuddha, kamaja, sambhandaja and bhayaja, combine in a rasa, it becomes extremely delightful.⁶⁴⁶ Such rasa is present in the minds of Krsja’s lady companions at Vraja (Vrajadevis). A votary aspiring to attain the highest kind of bhakti-rasa should try to imitate the minds of the Vrajadevis.⁶⁴⁷ In this way Madhusudana explains the highest kind of bhakti and suggests the means (sadhana) for the attainment of such bhakti. The Bengal school of Vaisnavism calls this highest bhakti of the cowherdesses of Vraja (Vrajagopis), the ragatmika-bhakti and a devotee’s imitation of their mental state undertaken in order to attain true bhakti, is called by them Raganuga-bhakti.⁶⁴⁸

It is clear that Madhasudana’s concept of rati is different from the literary concept of rati. The literary rati is the sthayi-bhava of frkgara-rasa only. But for Madhusudana the sthayi-bhavas of even bhayanaka, priti and fuddha-bhakti-rasa are ratis, when they concern Bhagavat. Again, Madhusudana admits that with the exception of raudra and raudra-bhayanaka-rasa, the mind must melt in all other kinds of rasa. But according to the literary school⁶⁴⁹ the mind melts only in the cases of frkgara, karuja and fanta-rasa, whereas in the cases of other rasas the mind becomes inspired (dipta). The commentator⁶⁵⁰ on the Kavya-prakafa states that dipta consists of mind’s expansion (vistara) and exultation (vikafa). In the cases of heroic (vira), violent (raudra) and disgusting (vibhatsa)- rasas, the mind only expands, while in the cases of comic (hasya), fantastic (adbhuta) and fearsome (bhayanaka) the mind also exults. Locana, on the other hand, states that in addition to erotic love (frkgara), sad or tragic (karuja) and quiescent (fanta)rasas, comic (hasya), fearsome (bhayanaka) and disgusting (vibhatsa)-rasas may sometimes arise in a melted mind.⁶⁵¹ Madhusudana admits the idea but only in case of those sthayi-bhavas known as mifrita.⁶⁵² Thus he accepts the view of the literary school in a limited way and reinterprets it in a new light. He must have been inspired by the famous Purajic characters, such as Prahlada.

Rasa

Madhusudana proceeds next to explain the nature (svarupa) of rasa, its locus (afraya), the cause of the manifestation of rasa and the nature of its manifestation. The permanent mood, in association with vibhava, anubhava and vyabhicaribhava, becomes manifested as bliss and is termed rasa. Rasa is therefore bliss per se, and hence is Bhagavat. Scriptural sayings such as ‘raso vai sa’ and ‘ananda Brahmeti vyanjanat’, ⁶⁵³ confirm that bliss is Bhagavat Himself. Though, in this way, other rasas too, like the bhakti-rasa, have the same nature – that is, bliss, only in bhakti-rasa the reflection is of the pure Bhagavat, while in other rasas Bhagavat is reflected on the melted mind, as conditioned by some attributes such as being the beloved (kanta), etc.⁶⁵⁴

But how can rasa, which is all-pervasive Bhagavat Himself, have a locus, that is, the mental mode? The answer Madhusudana gives is that the mind of the audience (samajika) is regarded as the container of rasa insofar as rasa is manifested as a reflection in their mental mode.⁶⁵⁵ Madhusudana then explains the causes of the manifestation of rasa.

The permanent moods belonging to characters such as Rama, represented in works of literature, are known to be common (laukika). But when the audience listens to or visualises the external behaviour of these characters, it develops within itself, by virtue of intense contemplation of these characters, extraordinary moods corresponding to the ordinary moods of the characters themselves. The permanent moods in characters of literature introduce both the senses of joy and sorrow. The corresponding moods of the audience, however, are a perpetual source of happiness.⁶⁵⁶ That is why even tragedy (karuja) can be a rasa, and is enjoyed as such by the audience.

The extraordinary permanent moods, such as rati, of the audience develop into rasa through the collective operation of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhacaribhava.⁶⁵⁷ Vibhava is the direct cause of excitement of characters in literature. It is of two kinds: alambana and uddipana. In the case of ordinary rasa, for instance, frkgara, the alambana is the prop of rati, while uddipana is the objects like moon, the backdrop that prepares and excites the mind. In the case of bhakti-rasa the alambana vibhava is Krsja while the leaf of tulsi, sandalpaste, etc., are uddipana vibhavas, inasmuch as they excite rati. Anubhava is the external expression of the person in whom the permanent mood is excited. These expressions indicate the progressive development of the mood in the person concerned. In the case of bhakti-rasa, features such as the tears, and the choked and broken voice of the devotee, are all regarded as anubhavas. Vyabhicari-bhava are the fluctuating moods that help in the further development of the permanent mood, for example, in the case of bhakti-rasa, the mood of detachment (nirveda) is regarded to be vyabhicari-bhava.⁶⁵⁸ According to Madhusudana, the worldly causes of feelings such as love, when presented through literature, assume the status of sthayi-bhava. But they are still to be regarded as ordinary. Distinguished from these elements of vibhava, etc., are the corresponding elements also called vibhava, etc. of the enjoying public (samajikas). Unlike the ordinary ones, such vibhava, etc. are deemed as impersonal and they help in the manifestation of rasa, which is enjoyed by the audience.⁶⁵⁹ From the psychological point of view, an illuminating and pure (sattva-guja pradhana) vrtti is generated in the mind of the enjoyer. Such a mental mode (vrtti ) not only grasps the sthayi-bhava, but also the three auxiliary bhavas, all of which are consolidated (samuhalabana) in the same vrtti.⁶⁶⁰ Such vrtti reveals at once ecstatic pleasure which is rasa. Madhusudana points out in this context the views of his predecessors, who have taken the revealing vrtti to be the rasa.⁶⁶¹

A literary composition presents the merits (guja), figures of speech

(alaÅ kara), style (riti) and the vibhava, etc., and through these factors manifests rasa, with the power of suggestion (vyañ jana-vrtti) inherent in such composition. Though the knowledge of rasa is inspired by a literary composition, it is still a direct knowledge. The knowledge of self-revealing rasa is the revelation of the

highest Reality in its undifferentiated, blissful nature.⁶⁶²

In conclusion, I again emphasise the following observations made throughout this work: The study of Madhusudana reveals two distinct aspects of his personality. In one, Madhusudana is the great scholar of the Advaita-vedanta, a vigorous dialectician, determined to shatter every attempt at minimising the tenets of the Advaita-vedanta. He was determined to not only to save FaÅ kara’s non-dualistic vedanta but elevate it to a great philosophical system. In his other aspect, he reveals himself as a great devotee of Lord Krsja and a mystic. Though a strict adherent of the Advaita-vedanta philosophy he repeatedly declared his total ecstatic devotion to and love for Krsja, as for instance in the concluding verse of his commentary on the BhG, Madhusudana admits that he does not know any higher Reality than Krsja, who carries a flute in his hands, who is as dark as the (monsoon) rain-cloud, who wears yellow clothes and whose lips are as red as a ripe bimba fruit; whose face is as beautiful as the full moon and whose eyes are like lotus (petals):

vaÅ fivibhusitakarannavaniradabhat pitambarad-arujabimbaphaladharosthat.| purjendusundaramukhad aravindanetrat Krsjat paraÅ kimapi tatvamaham na jane.||⁶⁶³

So to gain a complete picture of Madhusudana’s achievement it is imperative to discuss both these aspects. He proves that monistic metaphysics and devotionalism go hand in hand in the search for perfection and unlimited bliss. In the introductory verses of his commentary on the BhG, Madhusudana gives a full description of the nature of spiritual pursuit. In order to purify the mind the devotee should perform religious and social duties (karma) without any ulterior purpose. At the same time he must perform such activities as japa (repetition of the divine name or mantra) so that through constant meditation on the Divine and practice of devotion for the Supreme Being may stimulate his/her mind and brings about the dawning of real and spontaneous divine love in his/her mind. Thus purified, the mind acquires the discriminating knowledge of what is true and what is false (viveka buddhi). Such knowledge leads to extreme detachment. Being desirous of liberation, the devotee takes refuge in a guru who teaches him true knowledge. He gains thereby the knowledge of falsity of empirical knowledge, which is the first step towards the achievement of unlimited bliss. The devotee realises for the first time that the worries, privations, woes and afflictions of this life are but illusions and the cause of this illusion is the beginningless false knowledge (avidya). Once this knowledge settles in the mind, he enquires as to the process by which this false universe has been generated. How to account for the entire creation? This leads to the discussion of the genesis of the universe in its different phases. Next, there comes the enquiry about Brahman, the only truth that endures throughout eternity. The knowledge of Brahman, devoid of all duality, is the primary requisite for the ultimate knowledge of the identification between the devotee, that is jiva, and Brahman. The knowledge of Brahman enables the devotee to know the real nature of his own self, that is, the real self of jiva, and the explanation for jiva’s outward expression. When the devotee knows the real nature of Brahman, as well as his own real self as identical with Brahman, ultimate bliss dawns in the mind of the devotee. These constitute the preliminary stages of devotion. The next stage is the true pursuit of the devotee for the attainment of unlimited ecstatic love for the Supreme Being, which is bliss in itself. Here, there is no need for the knowledge of identity or the knowledge of anything else. The field of love for the Supreme Being excels the field of pure knowledge, because pure knowledge merges the pursuer into the Truth, the Knowledge and the Bliss, whereas divine love transports the devotee in the realm of ecstatic enjoyment of that love. To underscore his point Madhusudana concludes his commentary on BhG IX with the following verse: fri Govinda-padarabindamakarandasvadafuddhafayah saÅ sarambudhimuttaranti sahasa pafyanti purjaÅ mahah.| vedantairavadhayanti paramaÅ freyas-tyajanti bhramaÅ dvaitaÅ svapnasamaÅ vidanti vimalam vidantic-anandatam.||

In this verse he acknowledges that the devotees who have tasted the nectar of their love for Govinda acquire pure minds. They easily get across the ocean of transient existence and fortuitously perceive the supreme Plenum and Joy. By understanding the Upanisadic statements they realise their supreme goal. [At the same time] they remove their wrong perception of the world of duality and regard their [empirical experiences] as dreams. They realise that their experience of [divine love] is pure Bliss.

Without making any qualitative distinction between the philosophy of

Advaita-vedanta and the theology of pure love for Bhagavat, the Supreme Being, he simply makes a synthesis between the two without losing sight of the concept of the non-dual Reality. His originality is most advantageously expressed in his exposition of the BhG. In his commentary on the final verse he contradicts FaÅ kara by taking the term dharma to mean social duties. FaÅ kara took the term to mean karma in general, and explained that it means total renunciation of all actions whether social or religious. But Madhusudana does not agree with FaÅ kara because he is not going to leave out his spontaneous acts of devotion. That is why, in spite of being a great non-dualist Vedantin, Madhusudana admits the paradox of his personality:

kurvanti ke’pi krtinah kvacidapyanante svantam vidhaya visayantarafantimeva.| tvat padapadma-vigalanmakarandabindumasvadya madyanti muhurmadhubhinmanome.||⁶⁶⁴

Some successful persons (i.e. yogis) may have extinguished their mind’s craving for other objects by fixing (their mind) on some eternal Reality. Oh Destroyer of Madhu! ⁶⁶⁵ My mind constantly tasting the nectar dripping from your lotus feet, keep on acting like a drunk.

Yogic instacy is not enough for Madhsudana, he rejoices in the ecstasy of his love for Krsja.

GLOSSARY

abhava Absence, non-existence.

abhihitanvaya-vada      The theory of verbal knowledge where the sentence when uttered presents first the primary sense of the words and then their grammatical interrelations. adhisthana Locus.

adhyasa Superimposition. One object appears another like a piece of rope appearing like a snake.

adrsta The previous action (karma) causing the production of an object. ahamartha; ahaÇ kara Ego which is an ontological category. akhajdakara Undifferentiated and integral. anirvacaniya Undefinable. antahkaraja Mind, inner sense organ. anubhava Physical reaction of a mood.

anuvyavasaya In the epistemology of the Nyaya system complete cognition has two parts. The first part is called vyavasaya where the knower has sensecontact with an object. In the second part, which immediately follows the first part, the subject also appears in the cognition. This is called anuvyavasaya. For instance, vyavasaya part of seeing a water jug presents ‘something the eyes are contacting’; the second part presents the cognition as

‘I am seeing a water jug.’ anvitabhidhana-vada The theory of verbal knowledge in which a sentence when uttered presents the meanings of not only the words in it but also their grammatical interrelations.

anyonyabhava Mutual absence that means A is not B.

apurva Result produced by the performance of Vedic rituals (karma) – a MimaÅ sa term. Vedanta calls it karma-phala; Vaifesika calls it adrsta; Nyaya calls it dharma and adharma.

asanga Unrelated. asat Non-existent, unreal.

afraya, adhisthana         Container, substratum, locus. avaccheda  Delimitation. avantara           Relative.

GLOSSARY

avidya; ajñ ana; maya; bhrama  Illusion; false knowledge; mistaken appearance. bhava        Mental mood.

bimba-pratibimba-vada The theory of identity between the reflection and the object reflected.

citta-vrtti          Cognitive mode of mind. drk       Subject of comprehension. drfya           Object of comprehension. jada   Insensate.

jiva Person, individual.

jñ ana Knowledge; experience. karta Agent. kartrtva Agency. mithya False, mistaken cognition. nirvikalpa Indeterminate, non-conceptual.

parijama Evolution.

prama-jñ ana Valid knowledge.

pramaja Means of valid knowledge. Advaita-vedanta accept six pramajas: direct knowledge (pratyaksa); inference (anumana); scripture (fabda); analogy (upamana); presumption, or, deduction from circumstantial evidence (arthapatti) and lack of experience (anupalabdhi).

prameya           The content of valid knowledge. pramiti  The process of valid knowledge.

prarabdha karma Karma, accumulated in previous lives of a person that has already started to produce result.

pratiyogi          Positive counterpart of a negation. rati     Sexual love.

Sadhya Inferable entity.

Saksi The omniscient pure consciousness. sat Existent, real. savikalpa Determinate, conceptual. sthayi bhava Abiding or permanent mood. upadhi Limiting adjunct, temporary limitation. upajivya Dependant. upalaksaja Secondary, remote or modified sense of a word. uparaga Connection. vibhava Stimulants for mental mood.

vivarta Illusory transformation.

vrtti    Mode; for example, a mental mode. vrtti-jñ ana     Cognitive knowledge; cognition. vyabhicari bhava           Discordant moods.

NOTES

1 INTRODUCTION

1 Gangefopadhyaya belonged to the thirteenth C.E. His great work the Tattva-citamaji started a new era for the classical Indian logicians. Daniel H.H. Ingalls, Materials For The Study Of Navya-nyaya Logic, pp. 1–5ff.

2 S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy; Volume II; pp. 116–227.

3 AdS, pp. 435–6. Madhusudana here explains Brahma-sutra 2.2.28–9 in a new light.

4 AdS, p. 846.

5 AdS, p. 467; SB, pp. 113–15; Gaekwads Oriental Series.

6 AdS, pp. 486–7.

7 AdS, p. 577.

8 SB, pp. 9–14.

9 Eliot Deutsch and J.A.B. van Buitenen, pp. 242ff; 252ff.

10 See, Kafyapa VaÅ fa-bhaskara. Ed. by Sitanath Siddhantavagifa; Introduction (Beangali), by Rajendranath Ghosh. Ed. Advaita-siddhi, part I. 1931, pp. 84–201; James Benson, FaÅ kara Bhatta’s Family Chronicle: The GadhivaÅ favarjana , paper in The Pandit: Traditional Scholarship in India, ed. Axel Michaels, Festschrift Parameswara Aithal, South Asian Studies No. XXXVIII, South Asia Institute, New Delhi Branch Heidelberg University.

11 AdRR, p. 44. (Nirnayasagar edision); and GGD, on BhG.6.33–4.

12 See preface to Advaita-siddhi., ed. Mm. Yogendra Nath Tarka SaÅ khya VedantaTirtha, and ‘Introduction to SB’ by P.C. Divanji, Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, Vol. LXIV.

13 Advaita-siddhi, Part I, Ed. Yogendra Nath Tarka SaÅ khya VedantaTirtha, p. 115.

14 Sarasvati Bhavana Studies, Vol. VII, p. 177.

15 Introduction to Vedanta-kalpa-latika, Sarasvati Bhavana text no. 3 (1920).

16 Introduction, Gaekwad Oriental Series, Vol. LXIV.

17 Sarasvati Bhavana Studies, Vol. VII, p. 177.

18 Preface, Advaita-siddhi, Part I. Ed. Yogendra Nath Tarkatirtha, p. 91.

19 Sarasvati Bhavana Studies, Vol. VII, p. 178. See also Benson.

20 Sarasvati Bhavana Studies, Vol. VII, p. 178.

21 SB, p. 38.

22 AdS, Nirnayasagar edition, p. 423.

23 I.H.Q., Vol. XIII, 1937, p. 31.

24 I.H.Q., Vol. XIII, 1937, p. 31.

25 I.H.Q., Vol. XIII, 1937, p. 31. 26 See Benson.

27 I.H.Q., Vol. XIII, 1937, p. 31.

28 Ind. Ant., 1912, p. 9.

29 Introduction to VKL, Sarasvati Bhavan Text, No. 3. Cf. Benson.

30 SB, pp. 117–8. See below.

31 Vedanta darfan: Advaita-vada, p. 442.

32 See Chap. 5.

33 See Chap. 8.

34 Bangla Sahityer itihasa, Vol. I, by Sukumar Sen, p. 166.

35 See Chap. 8.

36 It may be noted here that Dinesh Ch. Sen mentioned that Jiva Gosvami went to Varanasi and became a disciple of Madhusudana Vacaspati. This Vacaspati title may be a mistake for Sarasvati as Jiva desired to learn Advaita-Vedanta from his preceptor. Hence Jiva Gosvami may be regarded as a junior contemporary of Madhusudana. However, this conclusion is based on no real evidence (Brhat Banga, p. 744).

37 Preface to Advaita-siddhi. Ed. By Mm. Yogendranath Tarka SaÅ khya-Vedanta-Tirtha, p. 94.

38 Ibid., p. 93. See also the preface to VKL, Sarasvati Bhavana Texts, No. 3.

39 Introduction to SB by P.C. Divanji, Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, Vol. LXIV, p. XXI.

40 C.C, Part I, p. 427.

41 This is a mistaken form of Advaita-siddhi.

42 Vedanta-darfaner-itihasa, Part III, p. 763.

43 AdS, p. 8. Nirnayasagar ed.

44 Ibid., p. 8.

45 VKL, p. 93.

46 AdS, p. 678. Nirnayasagar ed.

47 VKL, p. 93.

48 AdRR, pp. 9, 24, 26, 28, 37 and 44. Nirnayasagar ed.

49 Ibid., p. 44.

50 Gaekwads Oriental Series, Vol. No. LXIV, Part 1. Sans Sec.

51 Ibid., p. 83. Sans Sec.

52 AdRR., p. 46.

53 VKL, p. 87.

54 AdS, p. 490.

55 SSSS, Ch. I, p. 1. Kasi Sans Series, Vol. 18.

56 AdS, p. 8.

57 SSSS, Ch. I, p. 398.

58 AdRR, p. 46.

59 SSSS, Ch. II, p. 144, Ch. III, p. 352, Ch. IV, p. 392.

60 GGD, pp. 282, 1251, etc.

61 SSSS, Ch. I, p. 498, Ch. II, p. 144, Ch. III, p. 352 and Ch. IV, p. 392.

62 AdRR, p. 46.

63 GGD, p. 1251.

64 AdS, p. 8.

65 GGD, p. 118.

66 AdS, p. 750.

67 BhR, p. 52.

68 Ibid., p. 48.

69 GGD, p. 1239. Ch. XVIII, 66.

70 BPPS, V, p. 31, Vol. I. Ed. Nityasvarup.

71 The discussion on the Pañ caratra at the end of this work is interesting in that it contradicts Faskara’s explanation of the Vyuha theory and gives his own.

72 HLV, p. 10.

73 Translation of Siddhanta-bindu, p. 37.

74 SB. preface, Government Oriental Series, Class A, No. 2, p. 27.

75 MST, p. 20. 76 Ibid., p. 81. 77 MST, p. 76.

78 Translation of SB, p. 46.

79 Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, Vol. LXIV, p. XII.

80 IPP, pp. 7–10.

81 Kavyamala, Part II, p. 154.

82 Ibid.

83 MST, p. 45.

84 Ibid., p. 72.

85 The polemical style of philosophical works was already fixed by the

Logicians (Naiyayikas). Vyasatirtha’s predecessor Jayatirtha followed the style in his

Vadavali where he refuted FaÅ kara’s Advaita-Vedanta. Vadavali By Jayatirtha: a criticism from Dvaita standpoint of the doctrine of theillusoriness of the universe. (mithyatva-khajdana), Ed. and Tr. P. Nagaraja Rao, M.A. Adyar Library Series No. 40 Adyar 1943.

86 Vyasatirtha, Nyayamrta, editor’s Introduction, passim. Dasgupta, opus citum pp. 118–25; 373–92.

87 AdS, p. 8.

88 Cf. AdS, pp. 577, 583 and 585.

89 Ibid., p. 664.

90 Madhusudana declared in the fourth verse after the three benedictory verses at the beginning of the Advaita-siddhi that the purpose of his writing this work was ‘to refute (the arguments) of the opponents of the theory of non-dualism’(vadivijayaya); See Dasgupta Opus citum pp. 225–7.

2 AVIDYA

91 ‘That from which these beings are born; on which, once born, they live; and into which they pass upon death – seek to perceive that! That is brahman! ’ (Yato va imani bhutani jayante...); TaiU, 3.I.

92 The word fruti here specifically refers mainly, to the Upanisadic statements, though occasionally it includes other Vedic statements.

93 For details, vide Ch. 6.

94 AdS, p. 544 (Nirnayasagar edition), anadi bhavarupatve sati jñ ananivartyattvam).

95 Every knowledge or cognition is a fresh one and must not be known to the knower just before it arises. Otherwise, it cannot be taken as a knowledge. It is just a form of recognition.

96 AdS, p. 544.

97 Madhusudana discusses this point elaborately in his Advaita-siddhi, while putting forward the topic of cognisability (drfyatva), of all empirical objects as evidence proving their falsity. AdS, pp. 233–94. See next chapter.

98 AdS, (vrttivyapya) pp. 261–3.

99 For further details, vide Ch. 6.

100 Ibid.

101 According to Purajic legend the son of the Asura Vipracitti cheated Visju while the latter was distributing the divine amrta to the gods only and not to the Asuras, by sitting with the gods. The Sun-god and the Moon-god detected him and informed Visju who beheaded the Asura. But having consumed amrta he could not be killed but lived on. As the head he is called Rahu and as the body he is called Ketu and are counted amongst the sacred nine planets (graha). The Asura is invisible until Rahu tries to devour the two informers, the Sun and the Moon. When this happens we see their eclipse and the dark body of Rahu covering the luminaries. VisjuP, 1, 90, 80–111.

102 (a) ‘Ahamajñ o mamanyam ca na janami.’

(b) ‘Tvaduktamartham na janami.’

103 ‘Etavantam kalam sukhamahamasvapsam na kiñ cidavedisam.’ 104 AdS, p. 548.

105 AdS, p. 548.

106 For detailed treatment on the subject, vide Ch. 3.

107 For details, vide Ch. 5.

108 See Ch. 5, Brahman is the undifferentiated and unlimited consciousness. The three other categories of conscious entities are saksin, Ifvara (God) and jiva (individual self). While the latter two possess cosmic and individual agency, the first one is there just to ensures that every phenomenon is revealed to the consciousness irrespective of being content of any pragmatic knowledge.

109 According to the Naiyayikas there are three categories of absence (abhava) viz. pragabhava, dhaÅ fabhava and samanyabhava. The first means absence of an entity just prior to its coming to existence. The second means absence of an entity when it has been destroyed. The third means total non-existence of an entity. The positive aspect of an object when its absence is stated is known as pratiyogin.

110 AdS, p. 552.

111 AdS, p. 553.

112 See Mm. Jogendra Nath Bagchi, Advaitavade avidya. Passim.

113 AdS, p. 557.

114 According to Advaita-vedanta, there are six means of valid knowledge the last of which is lack of experience (anupalabdhi) which conveys to a person that there is an absence of an object. See Appaya Diksita.

115 AdS, p. 557.

116 AdS, pp. 558–9.

117 AdS, p. 557.

118 AdS, p. 558.

119 AdS, p. 558.

120 AdS, p. 558.

121 Surefvara, 1.4.300–01, on BrAU, 1.4.7.

122 AdS, p. 562.

123 AdS, p. 566.

124 AdS, p. 567.

125 AdS, p. 570. ChU, VIII.3.2.

126 KathaU., I.3.1.

127 ‘Bhuyafcante vifva maya nivrtti.’ FveU I.10.

128 In addition to the three universally accepted pramaja, (means of achieving a valid knowledge), viz. perception or direct experience, inference and the fruti (verbal authority), Advaita-vedanta accepts three more means of valid knowledge, viz., experience based on analogy, inference from circumstance and non-apprehension. However, the fourth and the last are not relevant in that avidya/ajñ ana is unique and absent only at the moment of the realisation of Brahman. See Dharmarajadhvarindra, Vedanta-paribhasa ch.1.

129 AdS, p. 573.

130 AdS, p. 575.

131 AdS, p. 577. cf. ‘afrayatva-visayatva-bhagini nirbibhaga-citireva kevala’.(The indivisible consciousness alone is both the locus and object of avidya); SaÅ ksepa-fariraka 1.319.

132 AdS, p. 577. See Ch. 5. 133 AdS, p. 577.

134 Ibid., p. 578.

135 AdS, p. 585. cf. Kalpataru, pp. 2–3 and pp. 126–7, Brahma-sutra: Nirnayasagar.

136 AdS, p. 585.

137 AdS, p. 587.

138 In the Advaita-vedanta philosophy following six categories are accepted as having no beginning: jiva, Ifa, pure consciousness, the difference between jiva and Ifa, avidya and its (false) connection with the consciousness.

139 AdS, p. 586.

140 AdS, p. 587.

141 AdS, pp. 48–51.

142 AdS, p. 94.

143 Ibid., pp. 98–100.

144 BrU. 4.IV.19. ‘there is here nothing diverse at all’.

145 AdS, p. 96.

146 AdS, p. 121.

147 Ad.S, p. 123.

148 Ad.S, pp. 123–4.

149 AdS, pp. 139–40.

150 AdS, p. 160.

151 Each experience lasts only for a moment.

152 AdS, p. 162.

153 AdS, pp. 166–8.

154 Ibid., p. 171. 155 AdS, p. 178.

156 Ibid., p. 168.

157 AdS, pp. 182–3.

158 AdS, p. 186.

159 AdS, pp. 115–8. (Sadviviktatvam va mithyatvam; prama-jñ ana visayatvam; ava dhitavisayatvam pramatvam).

160 AdS, pp. 239–41.

161 ‘Undifferentiated cognitive mode’, According to the Advaita-vedanta epistemology, verbal exerience produced by meditating on frutis like tat tvam asi, produce an undifferentiated experience of Brahman. See, Chs 3, 4 and 5.

162 AdS, p. 249.

163 AdS, p. 259. Kalpataru is a famous commentary by Amalananda Sarasvati on Vacaspati Mifra’s commentary, Bhamati. Bhamati is a commentary on FaÇ kara’s commentary on the Brahmasutra. Cf. S.N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Philosophy, part II (1965), pp. 51–3.

164 AdS, pp. 261–4.

165 AdS, p. 268.

166 AdS, p. 269.

167 AdS, p. 273.

168 AdS, p. 276.

169 AdS, pp. 295–7, 305.

170 AdS, p. 322.

171 The Indian system of making a syllogistic formula for inferential evidence is complex. See S. Kuppuswami Sastri, A Primer of Indian Logic, pp.188–202.

172 AdS, p. 657.

173 AdS, p. 658.

174 This view is known as anyathakhyativada, vide Bhamati on Adhyasa section of FaÇ kara’s commentary on the first aphorism of the Brahma-sutra. Also, see S. Kuppuswami Sastri, (3rd edition), 1961, pp. 121–7.

175 AdS, p. 647.

176 AdS, p. 648.

177 AdS, p. 648.

178 AdS, p. 648.

179 AdS, p. 648.

180 AdS, p. 652.

181 AdS, p. 653.

182 AdS, p. 653.

183 Whatever may be the mode of revealing agent, mind or avidya, the revelation is always consciousness reflecting on that mode. This consciousness is called saksin and this consciousness is in fact totally identified with the individual cogniser.

184 AdS, pp. 653–4.

185 For a thorough discussion of the process of direct perception cf. the Vedanta Paribhasa Ch I and Bina Gupta’s Perceiving in Advaita Vedant: Epistemological Analysis and Interpretation, pp. 34–91 and pp. 201–50 (Indian edition 1995).

3 KNOWLEDGE AND EPISTEMOLOGY

186 (a) Satyam jñ anamanantam Brahma, TaiU, 2.1.1.

(b) ‘Tameva bhantamanubhati sarvam tasya bhasa sarvamidamvibhati.’ Kau.U,

2.5.15.

187 AdS, p. 577.

188 See Vedanta-paribhasa, Ch. 1. Cf. Bina Gupta, pp. 225–31.

189 SB, on verse 8 of FaÅ kara’s Dafafloki. (p. 198. SB, Advaita Manjari series).

190 BrAU, 2, 3, 5. tr. Patrick Olivelle.

191 SB, on FaÅ kara’s Dafafloki, verse 8, See also Brahmananda’s commentary thereon.

192 Cf. GGD, on BhG VI, 2, (p. 492).

193 See notes 53 and 109.

194 SB, (p. 193). ‘Smrti saÅ faya viparyayanam saksi-caitanyafrayatvaniyamat.’ 195 GGD, (p. 492). ‘Pramajaviparyaya vikalpanidrasmrtayah iti vrttayah pañ cavidhah.’ 196 SB on the verse 8 of FaÅ kara’s Dafafloki.

This means that only the object that has contact with sense organs can be perceived by vrtti. See Bina Gupta, pp. 201–24.

197 Here ahaÅ kara means merely a part of the mind, explained in the Vedanta paribhasa as garva.

198 SB on Dafafloki.

199 AdS, p. 577.

200 Ibid., p. 384. ‘Prakafakam tavat adhisthanacideva.’ cf. ‘Him alone, as he shines, do all things reflect; this whole world radiates with his light’; MujdakaU II.2.10.

201 AdS, pp. 481 and 483; and Gauda Brahmannada’s commentary thereon.

202 Brahmananda’s commentary on AdS, p. 183. ‘saksi cit prakafika.’ 203 AdS, p. 478.

204 AdS, p. 483. Brahmananda’s commentary.

205 See Brahmananda’s commentary on AdS, p. 479.

206 AdS, p. 479.

207 AdS, p. 479.

208 SB, op.cit. AdS, p. 479.

209 Madhusudana draws upon the view of Sarvajñ atma Muni who holds that both the support and object of ignorance is consciousness alone. Madhusudana himself cherished the same view. Cf. ‘afrayatva -visayatva-bhagini nirvibhaga-citireva kevala’’, SaÅ ksepa-fariraka, I, 319. 210 AdS, pp. 486–7.

211 SB, p. 144.

212 Brahmananda’s commentary on AdS, p. 487.

213 Ibid., p. 487.

214 Ibid., p. 487.

215 SB, on Dafafloki and AdS, p. 490.

216 AdS, p. 430.

NB: The object-consciousness is always saksi and its revelation, the saksi-jñ ana.

217 SB, pp. 147–8.

218 SB, pp. 137–8. See also Brahmananda’s commentary thereon.

219 Brahmanand’a commentary on AdS, p. 479.

220 VKL, pp. 77–8.

221 ChaU, 6.16.3; Ibid., 7.26.2; MujdU, 3.2.6.

222 AdS, p. 875.

223 Aparyaya fabdanam saÅ sargagocara pramiti-janakatvam akhajdarthata/ SaÅ sargasangi samyagdhihetuta ya giramiyam/saivakhajdarthata, yadva tat pratipadikarthata//, p. 109. Tattvapradipika. Nirnayasagar edition.

224 The Sutra of Pajini, namely ‘pratipadikartha linga parimajavacanamatra’ states that the stem ‘ghata’ does not refer to any relationship of the pitcher with any object or suffix. Likewise, the meaning of the word ‘Brahman’ in ‘aham Brahmasmi’ only expresses the meaning to which the stem ‘Brahma’ refers, namely pure Brahman.

225 AdS, p. 664.

226 AdS, p.673

227 Vide Brahmananda’s commentary on AdS p.673.

228 Ibid.

229 AdS, p. 673.

230 Vide Brahmananda’s commentary on AdS, p. 674. ‘faktilaksajanyatararupa laksajarupa va ya eka namnorvrttih, tajjñ anajanya smrtivisayany-avisayaka prama janakatvameva laksajam.’ 231 TaiU, 2.1.1.

232 Brahmananda’s commentary, on AdS, p. 662.

233 Ibid., p. 662.

234 AdS, p. 675. ‘Akaryakarajadravyamatranisthatve sati samanadhikarajatvat.’ 235 Ibid., p. 689.

236 Ibid., p. 691.

237 ‘Tatparyavisayanvayanubhavakatvamev akaÅ ksa vacya.’ AdS, p. 689.

238 ‘Asattirapi avyavadhanena fabdabodhanukulapadarthopasthiti matram.’AdS, p. 689.

239 AdS, p. 691.

240 See below. Cf., Bina Gupta, pp. 66–72 and 167–200.

241 Vide, Brahmananda’s commentary on AdS, p. 296.

242 AdS, pp. 771–2.

243 Ibid., p. 772.

244 Ibid., p. 774.

245 Ibid., p. 773.

246 Ibid., p. 770.

247 Cf. Kuppuswami Sastri op. Cit.

248 AdS, p. 774.

249 AdRR, p. 34.

250 AdRR, p. 35.

251 Ibid., p. 33.

252 Ibid.

253 Ibid.

4 BRAHMAN

255 Vide Vyasaraja, Nyayamrtam, ch 2. It should be remembered that for the Vaisjavas Brahman and Visju/Narayaja are the same divinity.

256 Advitiyaparamananda bodharupaÅ ca Brahmeti siddham, SB, on Dafafloki 4. p. 155.

257 AdS, p. 739.

258 Fve, 6.XI. ‘(Brahman is) omniscient consciousness – unique and unqualified.’

259 BrAU, I.4.7. ‘One should meditate upon the self alone.’

260 For example, ‘saksi ceta kevalonirguı afca.’

261 ChaU, 8.I.5. ‘That is the self free from evils....the self whose desires and intentions become real that’s what you should try to discover, that’s what you should seek to perceive.’ Ollivelle.

262 One hears about his highest and truly diverse power, which is part of his very nature and is working of his knowledge and strength’.(Parasya faktir vividhaiva fruyate svabhaviki jñ anabalakriya ca). FveU, 6.VIII.

263 ‘Tat tvam asi’, ChaU. 6, VIII.7.

264 ‘Neha nanasti kiñ cana’, Br. 4, IV.19. ‘There is no plurality in this world.’ 265 Taittiriya, 2.VII.1 and Mundaka, 3.X.1.

266 BrAU, 4.IV.19.

267 ‘Ityayamtadbrahmatmika? saccidanandakhya ityupasitavya’. RamottaratapanioU, Anandasram series No. 29, p. 532.

268 Bhamati, on BrS, 1.I.20.

269 Kalpataru on BrS, 1.I. 20.

nirvifesaÅ paraÅ Brahma saksatkartumanifvarah| ye mandaste ‘nukampyante savifesa nirupajaih|| vafikrte manasyeyam saguja Brahmasilanat| tadevavirbhavet saksat apetopadhi kalpanam’||

270 ChaU, 6.2.1.

271 TaiU, 2.7.1.

272 AdS, p. 720. Madhusudana holds that the frutis depicting unqualified Brahman are especially privileged to serve a distinct purpose, that is, the attainment of salvation, the highest goal of human life. They are therefore to be regarded as authoritative. On the other hand, frutis, describing qualified Brahman do not serve such a purpose. Hence they should be regarded as auxiliary to the former type of frutis. 273 ChaU, 3.XIX.1.

274 MujdakaU, 2.II.11.

275 ChaU, 6.VIII.7.

276 BrAU, 1.IV.10.

277 AdS, p. 726.

278 ChaU., 3.XIV.1.

279 FveU, 6.11.

280 MujdakaU, 1.I.9,

281 AdS, p. 721. The frutis describing unqualified Brahman are called nirguja fruti.

Those describing qualified Brahman are saguja frutis.

282 ‘atmetyeva upasita’, BrU, 1.IV.7, 283 See above.

284 AdS, p. 731.

285 Ibid., p. 738.

286 ‘Aditya varjam tamasah parastat’, FveU, I.3.VIII. Also cf. the Purusa sukta., RV, X. 90.

287 ‘ya eso’ntaraditye hirajmayah puruso drfyate.’ ChaU, I.6.6.

288 See Ch. 5.

289 ‘Vivartadhisthanatayopadanatvasambhavat’, AdS, p. 757. See also, ‘Ekasya eva avidyopahitatvenopadanatvasyavidyaparijamechakrtadyafrayatvena nimittasyapi sambhavat.’ AdS, p. 759.

290 ‘Atmani karyajanihetutvasyaiva upadana laksajatvat’, AdS, p. 757.

291 MuU, 1.I.9.

292 ‘Karyanukulajñ anavattvam’, Laghucandrika on AdS, p. 759.

293 MuU, 1.I.9.

294 SB, p. 44. ‘Mayaya ca sarvajñ atvadivifistam jagadupadanam nimittam ca.’ 295 Bhamati on FaÅ kara bhasya in BrS, 1.1.1.

296 ‘Saksi ceta kevalo nirgujafca, ’FveU, 6. XI. ‘Á nando Brahmeti vyajanat.’TaiU, 3.VI. 297 ‘Arthaprakafatva.’ AdS, p. 750.

298 Laghucandrika and AdS, p. 750

299 See the chapter on knowledge and epistemology.

300 ‘Nirupadhikestatva rupatvat.’ AdS, p. 751. ‘...because Brahman is unconditionally desired.’

301 Langhucandrika on AdS, p. 751.

302 (a) Satyam-jñ anam-anantam Brahma, TaiU, 2.I.1.

(b) ‘Ananda Brahmeti vyajanat.’ TaiU, 3, VI.

(c) ‘Vijñ anam-anandam Brahma.’ BrAU., 3.IX.28.9.

303 AdS, p. 751.

304 AdS, p. 752.

305 It is remarkable how Madhusudana explains bliss in clear terms of bhakti. He even uses the term prema to explain the Advaita idea of liberation and bliss.

306 BrAU, 4.III.23.

307 AdS, p. 752.

308 AdS, p. 752.

309 AdS, p. 768.

310 AdS, p. 769.

311 ‘undifferentiated and integral mode of mind.’ Ibid., p. 288.

312 According to the followers of Madhva, there are five kinds of real differences (bheda): that is, those between jiva and jada, (matter); jiva and jiva; jada and jada; jiva and Isa (God) and jada and Ifa. In their view, Brahman is identical with Ifa, since they do not believe in the existence of attributeless, unlimited, absolute Brahman.

313 BhG, 4.5.

314 MuU, 3.I.1.

315 As quoted in FaÅ kara Bhasya on the Brahma Sutra, 2.3.41.

316 FveU, 4.V. ‘One of the unborns joyfully lies with her (i.e. continually remains involved with prakrti ) while another (unborn) having enjoyed her (prakrti) abandons her.’ When one person entangled himself with the material world, prakrti, remains involved, another (enlightened ) person having had his involvement with the world of enjoyment renounces all.

317 MujdakaU, 3.I.1.

318 Ibid., 3.I.3.

319 For example, ‘the other, not eating, looks on’. (tayoranyah anafnanabhicakafiti’) or ‘The other who is the Lord.’ (Anyamifam). Ibid. 3.I.1 and 3.I.2.

320 The real purport of a scriptural discussion is decided by following clues. (1) introduction, (2) conclusion, (3) drift of the argumentation, (4) repetition of one theme, (5) the novelty of the subject and finally (6) the fruitfulness of the subject. 321 AdS, p. 810.

322 AdS, p. 511.

323 AdS, p. 118.

324 AdS, p. 522.

325 BrS. FaÅ karabhasya, p. 620. Nirnaya sagar edition.

326 KathaU, 5.X.III. 327 FveU, 4.V.

328 AdS, p. 822. As, for example, the frutis, such as ‘tat tvam asi’, ‘aham Brahmasmi’, etc. 329 The frutis are divided by the MimaÅ sakas into two groups (1) vidhi and (2) arthavada. Vidhi means Vedic injunction or prohibition. The Vedic texts that neither lay an injunction nor, a prohibition are known as ‘arthavada vakyas’. According to the MimaÅ sa Sutra – for example, ‘amnayasya kriyarthatvat’, Su, 1.2.1 – only those frutis that direct activity are valid, and those which do not are not valid by themselves. They further state that the Vedic statements of approval or disapproval (arthavada vakyas) are valid insofar as they co-operate with the idea of corresponding Vedic injunction or prohibition, by presenting either praise or abuse of the theme of the injunction or prohibition. 330 ChaU, 6.VIII.7.

331 BrAU, 1.IV.10.

332 SB, on the verse 1 of Famkara’s Dafafloki, (p. 11. Advaita Manjari series.) 333 Ibid., p. 9.

334 SB, pp. 9–10.

335 Ibid., p. 9.

336 SaÅ ksepa Fariraka Sara SaÅ graha, 1.290, p. 218.

337 ‘In spring a Brahmin should (ritually) stoke the fire; at night he should stoke the garhapatya fire and at daytime the ahavaniya fire.’ 338 Tai, 3.I.1.

339 MuU, 1.I.3.

340 TaiU, 2.1.

341 BrAU, 4.III.18.

342 Ibid., 4.III.7.

343 Ibid., 3.IV.2.

344 SB. On verse 1 of FaÅ kara’s Dafafloki; ( p. 14. Advaita Manjari series).

345 SaÅ ksepa Fariraka 1.2.58–61 and Sara-saÅ graha thereon.

346 SB. p. 35.

347 AdS, p. 832.

348 AdS, p. 832.

349 See Chapter 00, for further discussion on the subject.

350 Vide Nyayamrta. 2.17.

351 ‘Two birds...’(Dva suparja); and ‘...attains the highest identity’(paramaÅ samyam upaiti), MuU, 3.I.1 and 3.

352 For example, ‘...the other of the two, not eating...’ (tayoranyah anafnan...), ‘....he other who is the Lord’ (anyamifam...) ibid., 3.I.1 and 2.

353 MuU, I.I.3.

354 MuU, 1.1.4. 355 Ibid., 1.1.6.

356 AdS, p. 827.

357 MuU, 2.1.10.

358 MuU, 3.2.8–9.

359 Ibid., 3.1.3.

360 It has been accepted that the true meaning of a scripture is known by six characteristics of its discussion:

1 What it proposes to discuss at the beginning and how cogently the discussion ends.

2 Whether the same topic has been repeated within the text.

3 Whether the subject matter is new.

4 Whether the resulting knowledge makes all other things of the world clearly understood.

5 When the scripture praises the theme, and

6 When the topic is discussed with proper argumentation. Bharati Tirtha, Vai-yasika-nyayamala, 1.1.4.

361 AdS, p. 823.

362 AdS, p. 830. ‘Although in order to grasp their semantic meaning these two, (difference and non-different) are interdependent, (the latter) being self-evident does not depend on any other (evidence to prove its validity) – ‘Faktigrahadau tayorupajivyatve’pi svaprameye anupajivyatvat.’ 363 ChaU. 3.XII.6.

364 BhG. 15.7.

365 AdS, p. 845.

366 Ibid., p. 846. See also BS, 2.III.43. ‘Individual is a part (of the Lord) because many (fruti) show that fact’; this quotation is the first part of the sutra. The second part refutes this opposing opinion by saying: ‘there are other fruti conforming identity’. See commentaries of FaÅ kara and Vacaspati Mifra on this aphorism.

367 AdS, p. 846.

368 The explanation is based on the theory of reflection (pratibimbavada) offered by Prakafatman and other followers of FaÅ kara. The theory states that pure consciousness, being reflected on the internal organ, becomes the jiva and as this internal organ differs in different bodies, jiva is considered to be many (one in each body).

369 AdS, p. 848.

370 Ibid., p. 848.

371 Ibid., p. 850.

372 GGD, pp, 910–14.

373 AdRR, p. I.

NB: At the time of Fri Harsa, philosophical thought was greatly influenced by the Naiyayikas on the one hand, and by the dualistic Vaisjavas on the other. At that time, all philosophers preferred the highly technical and subtle method of argumentation of the Naiyayikas. Therefore, Fri Harsa and his followers adopted the same polemical style for the exposition of their Advaita doctrine.

374 AdRR, p. 8.

375 Ibid., p. 9. 376 See Ch. 3.

377 BrAU. 4.4.19,

378 AdRR, p. 5; cf. SaÅ ksepa fariraka, 3. 25.

379 This conclusion shows that Madhusudana rejects the view of Citsukha that the negation of the universe is a fifth category. Madhusudana draws upon the MimaÅ saka view that the negation of an object in its substratum is identical with the substratum, to prove that the universe is identical with Brahman. See also AdS. p. 467.

380 This shows that the Advaita-vedanta school is not a nihilistic school (funyavadin). 381 AdS. p. 657.

5 THE SENTIENT WORLD: IFVARA, JIVA AND SAKSI

382 SB, on Dafafloki 8.

383 Ibid.

384 Ibid.

385 Ibid.

386 Ibid.

387 SB, on Dafafloki 8, see also, Brahmananda’s commentary.

388 Ibid.

389 Ibid.

390 Ibid.

391 Ibid.

392 Vedanta paribhasa, pp. 26–7: upadhistu karyananvaya vyavartaka vartamanafca.

393 SB, on Dafafloki 8.

394 VSM, Ed. Late Col. Arthur Venis, M.A., p. 16.

395 SLS, pp. 105–7, Advaita Manjari series.

396 AdS, pp. 533–42.

397 Ibid.

398 SB, The non-dualist school of Vedanta accepts six beginningless phenomena, of which five are not endless. They are, therefore, not the transcendental Reality, that is, the pure consciousness. This six are: Pure consciousness; the primordial avidya; Ifvara; jiva; the difference between Ifvara and jiva; and the relationship of avidya with the individual self.

399 AdS, p. 539.

400 Ibid., p. 539.

401 Ibid., pp. 539–40.

402 Ibid., p. 541: ‘Because one accepts that the collective person is Omniscient, and Omnipotent’, (samastyabhimanino jivasya sarvajñ atva-sarvakartrtva-svikarat).

403 ChaU, 6. II.3. ‘Tadaiksata vahusyam.’‘(It thought to itself: “Let me become many”)’.

404 AdS, p. 534.

405 AdS, p. 534.

406 Ibid., p. 535.

407 See note 394.

408 SB on FaÅ kara’s Dafafloki 8.

409 AdS, p. 534. Brahmanandi.

410 AdS, p. 541.

411 AdS, p. 541.

412 AdS, p. 541.

413 AdS, 541. (a) ‘prati fariramahamahamikaya’; (b) ‘vaddho’ham’; iti nifcayasya svanubhavasaksikatvena pravrtti sambhavat.’

414 AdS, pp. 541–2. ‘Fuddhacitah ekatvena vastuto’saÅ saritve’pi avaraja-viksepafaktidvayasatis-v-afritavidya-vatsaÅ saritva-kalpakatva-moksartha-yatamanatvadyupapatti.’ 415 Fve.U, 6.II.

416 Pañ cadafi, p. 393.

417 Citsukhi, p. 382.

418 Citsukhi, p. 376.

419 SB on Dafafloki 8. ‘Bimba-pratibimbamukhanugatamukhasvarupavat jivefvarajugatam sarvanusandhatr caitanyam saksityucyate’

420 AdS, p. 754.

421 ‘Caitanye anavrta-visayasambandho’vidyavrtttidafayameva’, Gauda Brahmananda on AdS, p. 755.

422 SB on Dafasloki 8.

423 Bramananda on AdS, p. 755. ‘Avidyavrttyabhavakale saksyabhavat.’ 424 Ibid., pp. 754–5.

NB: The knowledge of Saksi is indifferent to either valid knowledge or illusion.

Among the objects of exclusively saksi-knowledge, the pleasure, conditional ajñ ana and Saksi in the state of deep sleep, and the pleasure, pain, avidya, illusory objects and even empirical cognitions in the waking state, are included. It is interesting to note that the anuvyavasaya, (after-cognition, in which the subject also is presented), of the Naiyayikas are regarded by the Advaitins as a saksi-knowledge when they include empirical cognitions in the list of the objects of saksi-knowledge.

425 SB on Dafafloki 8.

426 Ibid.

427 Ibid.

428 Ibid., Cf. KathaU, 2.2.

429 FveU, 6.XIV; BrAU, 3.IV.2 and 3.VII.23.

430 Avidya as the un-manifest material source of the creation is called avyakta prakrti. Following the SaÅ khya cosmology, Advaita-vedanta too, names it to be the primordial evolving source of the created world. Avyakta prakrti has three constituents called, guja. These are sattva, which is pure, bright and transparent; rajas, which is energetic, intrepid and dynamic; and, tamas, dark, gross and inactive.

431 SB on Dafafloki 1. 432 SB on Dafafloki 8.

433 BrAU, 2.V.19 and Bra.bindu U, 12.

434 BrAU, 1.IV.7 and TaiU, 2.VI.1. It is interesting to note that this type of evidence is known as ‘frutarthapatti’.

435 SB on Dafafloki 8.

436 BrAU, 4.III.7, 2.V.19 and 3.V.1.

437 SB on Dafafloki, 1. ‘paramapremaspadatvena ca tasyanandarupatvat’.

438 Ibid.

439 Cf. ‘satyanrte mithunikrtya ahamidam mamedamiti naisargiko’yam lokavyavaharah’, Brahma-sutra, adhyasa-bhasya, by FaÅ karacarya.

440 SB on Dafafloki 8.

441 Ibid.

442 Following Yogic ideas, Madhusudana adopts this view, which also Vivaraja follows. AdS, pp. 558–9.

443 AdS, p. 558. The author of the Vivaraja, follows the Yoga-sutra (I. 10), ‘sleep is the supporting mode of absence’, [and thus] accepts the condition of deep sleep to be a form of the [avidya-] mode which is characterised by tamas guja and the quality of covering [everything]. (‘Vivarajakaraistu, “abhava-pratyayalambanavrttirnidra” itiyogasutrajusarejatamogujatmakavarajamatralambanakacidvrtti susuptirityabhipretya’, etc.

444 Brahmananda’s commentary on SB, on Dafafloki 8. ‘avasthajñ anakaram saÅ skaratapannaja-gratsvapnavisayakam anadi jivefabhedadivisayakam ca yadavastharupam-ajñ anam tadvisayakam’).

445 Ibid.

446 Ibid., ‘samuhalambanaikavrttya nirvahe vrtti-trayakalpane gauravat.’

447 AdS, p. 558.

448 SB on Dafafloki 8.

449 ‘When the tip of the hair is split into a hundred parts, and one of those parts further into a hundred parts – the individual soul (jiva), on the one hand, is the size of one such part, and, on the other, it partakes of infinity.’ FveU, 5.9.

450 ‘Crossing across this [gross] body, he goes to that region’ (so’smacchariradutkramya amumlokamadhigacchati), etc. AdS, p. 851.

451 ‘...he leads them to Brahman.’ (sa etan Brahma gamayati). ChaU, 4.15.5.

452 ‘And this is the immense and unborn self’ (sa va esa mahanaja atma) etc. BrAU, 4.4.25.

453 ‘He is this eternal, who pervades all, is static and devoid of movement. He is always existent’ (nityas sarvagatah sthanuracalo ‘yam sanatana.) BhG, 2.24. 454 AdS, p. 853.

6 MATERIAL WORLD AND COSMOGONY

455 SB on Dafafloki 4, 9 and 10.

456 AdS, p. 503. For understanding Madhusudana’s argumentations establishing the falsity of the created world three concepts of the causal relationship between the material cause and the resultant object is necessary. The Naiyakas believe that an object does not exist prior to its creation from its material cause. This is known as arambha-vada. The SaÅ khya philosophers believe that an object remains dormant in its material cause, which evolves into the resultant object. This theory is known as parijama-vada. Advaita-vedanta holds that an object is a distorted projection of its cause, mistakenly considered to be a created object. This view is known as vivarta-vada. See Ninian Smart, Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy, pp. 189–94 and 235–40. 457 AdRR, p. 2.

458 Ibid.

459 Ibid. (Eka samagri ekameva karyam janayaliti svabhavasya kalpanat).

460 Adrsta is the karmic predestination that always regulates every worldly event.

461 AdRR, p. 2.

462 Ibid., p. 3.

463 AdS, p. 757. Also cf. Vedanta-siddhanta-muktavali, p. 117.

464 TaiU, 3.I. 1. ‘That from which these beings are born; on which, once born, they live; and into which they pass upon death – seek to perceive that. That is Brahman.’ cf, Tai, 2.7.1. ‘In the beginning this world was the non-existent, and from it arose the existent. By itself it made a body (atman)’ (asat va idamagra asit, tato vai sadajayata tadatmanam svayam akuruta.)

465 Vide. Siddhanta lefa-saÅ graha, p. 61. ‘possessing within oneself the cause that produces an effect’ (svatmani karyajani hetutvam).

466 AdS, p. 757.

467 Ibid.

468 AdS, p. 757. Also the commentary Laghucandrika thereon.

469 AdS, p. 758.

470 Ibid.

471 Ibid.

472 Lagucandrika on AdS, p. 758.

473 AdS, p. 759.

474 Ibid.

475 ‘I establish the distinctions of name and appearance.’(Namarupa vyakaravani), ChaU,

6.III.2.

476 AdS, p. 759.

477 Ibid.

478 AdS, p. 759, ‘Possessing the knowledge that is conducive to create objects.’ (Karyanukula jñ anavattva).

479 AdS, p. 79. This is, in fact, Saksi, the revealer of the physical objects.

480 TaiU, 3.I.1, ‘That from which these beings are born; on which, once born, they live; and into which they pass upon death...’ 481 ChaU, 6.III.2.

482 TaiU, 2.VI.1.

483 Ibid., 2.VI.1.

484 Ibid., 2.VII.1.

485 AdS, p. 762.

486 ChaU, 6.II.3; Ibid. 6.II.3.

487 TaiU, 2.VII.1. 488 Ibid., 2.VII.1. 489 AdS, p. 763.

490 ‘The cosmic elements are emitted from an existent entity’. [The reason for this conclusion is that: ] ‘These are characterised by [both] having identity with the Real [i.e., existent] and having various changes.’ (Mahabhutani sadvastuprakrtikani, satsvabhavanuraktatve sati vividhavikaratvat). ‘Just like an earthen ware, which always retains its nature of earthen-ness even when it may take a variety of shapes’, (mrdanusyutaghatadivat), AdS, p. 764.

491 ‘Brahman is said to be the (material) cause (of all) because It always abides in ignorance, which is the material cause of the illusion of duality’ (asya dvaitendrajalasya yadupadana-karajam / ajñ anam, tadu-pasritya Brahma karajamucyate). Quoted in AdS, p. 757.

492 SaÅ ksepafariraka, 1.319.

493 VSM, p. 117.

494 Purusottama’s commentary on SB, 54, (GOS). Cf. BhaP, 3.26.16–18 (‘antahpurusarupena kalarupena yo vahih); and BhG, 10.33 (‘ahamevaksayah kalo’). 495 S. Gupta, Laksmi Tantra, p. XXIII.

496 SB on Dafafloki 8.

497 Ibid.

498 ‘One hears about his highest and truly diverse power – his natural knowledge, strength and actions’ (Parasya faktir vividhaiva fruyate svabhaviki jñ anabalakriya ca), FveU, 6.VIII.

499 Vedanta-paribhasa, ch. 1, p. 23. Anantasaranasanskrtagranthavali, Vol. 5.

500 Ibid.

501 Vivaraja-prameya-saÅ graha. Vizianagram Sans series, Vol.V, p. 62.

502 Ibid., p. 63.

503 Vedanta-paribhasa, p. 23.

504 Vivaraja-prameya-saÅ grapha, pp. 62–3.

505 Cf. ‘the knot of heart is unravelled’ (Bhidyate hrdaya granthi), MuU, 2/8.

506 AdS, p. 603.

507 AdS, pp. 597–603. (AhaÅ karo hi anubhavamityatmanubandhyanubhavasyaham kartetyacidanubandhikartrtvadefcafrayah cidacitsamvalanatmakatvadadhyastah). 508 SB, pp.179–80.

509 SB, p. 180.

510 The phenomenon darkness is important in the Advaita-vedanta’s argumentation for recognising avidya as a positive phenomenon and not just the negation of knowledge. At the introductory sentence of his commentary on the BrS. FaÅ kara makes an analogy between avidya and darkness.

511 SB, 9, p. 181. According to some philosophers the sense of speech is a product of light because there is a statement in the Upanisad confirming that view (‘tejomayi vak’ ChU VI.5.4). However, Madhusudana states that as it manifests the sense of sound, which is the essence of space, this organ should be a product of space.

512 Ibid., p.183. The seventeen organs in combination are known as the linga, because by this combination the existence of self in indicated. This self remains ignorant and undergoes the cycle of birth and death.

513 Vide, GD, on BhG VII. 7.

514 ChaU, 6.III.3. Trivrtam trivrtam ekaikam karavani.

515 SB on Dafafloki 8. 516 Ibid.

517 SB on Dafafloki 8.

518 Ibid.

519 Ibid.

520 See discussion on the person (jiva) and on knowledge above.

7 ADVAITA-VEDANTA SALVATION

521 AdS, pp. 302–3; ‘At that time [i.e. the time of self realisation], the revelation is itself bliss; it is not the revelation of bliss.’(tada hi anandam eva prakafo’na tu anandasya prakafatvam).

522 AdRR, p. 23.

523 VKL, p. 28. ‘Therefore it is said that, having realised that self is un-differentiated Bliss, the one and only existent reality, [one gets one’s] ignorance removed.’ (tasmad akhajdanandadvitiya caitanyasanmatra atma jñ atah san avidyanivrttirityucyate. atraiva sarvapumartha vifranti).

524 As mentioned before, this shows that Madhusudana himself does not believe in the theory of a fifth kind of reality belonging to the cessation of avidya. AdS, p. 467.

525 BrAU, VI.5.6. ‘It is one’s self which one should see and hear, and on which one should reflect and concentrate. For by seeing and hearing one’s self, and by reflecting and concentrating on one’s self, one gains the knowledge of this whole world’.

526 VKL, p. 64.

527 MuU, III.2.9. ‘He who comes to know that highest Brahman, he himself becomes that very Brahman.’ 528 ChaU, 8.3.2.

529 ChaU, 6.8.7.

530 BrAU, 1.4.10.

531 VKL, p. 91.

532 VKL, p. 91.

533 VKL, pp. 91–2.

534 GGD, on BhG. III. 18.

535 Ibid. See also Patañ jali’s Yogasutra, books 2 and 3.

536 Ibid. 537 Ibid.

538 This gradual development of the degree of intensity of meditative trance (samadhi) is described in the Yoga-sutra of Patañ jali book 2 and 3.

539 BhaP, 3.29.37–8.

540 GGD, on BhG. III. 18.

541 AdS, pp. 891–2.

542 AdS, pp. 890–2.

543 GGD on BhG. III. 18.

544 Ibid.

545 AdS, pp. 893–4.

546 TaiU, 2.I.

547 AdS, p. 895. ‘Brahmvidapnotiparam’ityadau avapter Brhma-rupatvat sayujyasyapi tadrupatayangikarajiyatvat.’

548 The Bhagavata holds that there are five kinds of mukti, namely salokya, sarsti, samipya, sarupya and sayujya or ekatva. Salokya means sharing the same living place with God; sarsti means possessing powers similar to God; samipya is living near to God as His companion; sarupya is attaining God’s form marked by conch, disk, mace and lotus; ekatva or sayujya means being identical with God.

Two verses from the BhaP may be quoted in this connection:

(a) ‘Salokyasarstisamipyasarupyaikatvam apyuta Diyamanam nagrnhante matsevanam janah.’ 3.29.13.

(b) ‘Naikatmatam me sprhayanti kecit

Matpadasevabhirata madiyah

ye’nyo’nyato bhagavatah prasajya sabhajayante mama paurusani.’

3.25.34.

8 BHAKTI

549 SB on Dafafloki 9.

550 See chapters five and six.

551 For the historical background see Hardy, pp. 560–2.

552 See Hardy, p. 561.

553 In Varanasi where he spent most of his life, there still exists a temple of Gopala where tradition alleges, Madhusudana did his daily worship.

554 S. Gupta, 1991; See the GGD on BhG XII. 3–4; also cf. ‘O slayer of Madhu! Tasting the mead oozing from your lotus feet my mind remains intoxicated.’ GGD on the BhG, X.42.

555 BhP, III. 29.11–12.

madguja frutimatreja mayi sarva-gujasaye manogatiravicchinna yatha gakgambghaso ‘mbudhau.

556 BhR, I. 3. and annotations thereon. Cf. BhP, I. 7. 10.

557 BhP, III. 2. 8–10. 558 BhP, XI. 3. 31.

Smarantah smarayantafca mitho’ghaughaharaÅ Harim Bhaktya sañ jataya bhaktya bibhratyutpulakam tanum.

See Fridhara’s commentary on this statement.

559 FBhS, 1.1.2.

560 Commentary on FBhS, 1.1.2.

561 NBhS, 276.

562 BhP, VII. 5. 23–24. These are fravaja, kirtana, smaraja (incessantly remembering Visju), padasevana ( serving His feet), arcana (worshipping Him with offerings), vandana (singing His laudation), dasya (becoming His bond slave), sakhya (cultivating his loving friendship) and finally atmanivedana (totally dedicating one’s own self to the Lord).

563 See P.C.De, Bengal Vaishnavism, passim.

564 BhRS, I.1.11.

565 Ibid.

566 Jiva Gosvami’s commentary on BhRS, I.1.11.

567 BhRS, I. 2. 1; see also Jiva Gosvami’s commentary thereon.

568 BhP. III. 25. 25.

sataÅ prasaÅ gat mama virya-saÅ vido bhavanti hrtkarja-rasayanah kathah tajjosanad-afvapavarga vartmani sá raddha-rati-r-bhakti-r-anukramisyati.

569 Commentary on BhRS, I. 2. 2.; and Satsandarbha, p. 450 570 BhRS, I. 2. 4–5; I. 2. 69–71.

571 Satsandharbha 451.

572 BhRS, I. 4. 1ff.

573 Ibid., I.4.1. The prema-bhakti is defined by Rupa as:

samyaÅ masrjita-svanto mamatvatifayaÅ kitah bhavah sa eva sandratma budhaih prema nigadyate.

When one’s mental disposition is saturated (by love) and developed a great sense of the object of love being one’s very own, it is called bhava, (meaning a permancent disposition of mind). When this mental disposition becomes dense and saturates the whole personality of the devotee, the learned calls it prema.

574 Ibid., I. 4. 2.

575 Satsandarbha, p. 718.

576 Ibid., p. 450. See Jiva’s commentary on BhRS I. 4. 2–5.

577 Satsandarbha, p. 718. See also BhRS, I. 4. 9 –12, and Jiva’s commentary thereon. 578 See Gerow Paul, David Haberman and Gerald Carney passim. 579 BhR, I. 3.

drutasya bhagavaddharmad-dharavahikataÅ gata| Sarvefe manaso vrtti-r-bhakti-r-ityabhidhiyate||.

‘Bhakti is that mode of mind which due to the practice of bhagavaddharmas has melted, and which is constantly flowing towards the Lord of all.’ Cf. the Brahmavaivarta Puraja, Frikrsjajanmakhajda, part 2, Anandashrama Sanskrit series nr. 102, ch. 34, 7–16, p. 608, which gives a graphic description of how perfect aesthetic enjoyment melted not only the minds of the celestials at Vaikujtha, who had been listening to Fiva’s song and music, but their entire personalities became fluid. Lord Narayaja collected the liquid inside his heaven and then restored the celestials back to their normal selves. The accumulated liquid became the river Gakga.

580 Ramanuja’s commentary on Brahma-sutra 1.1.1 and IV. 1.1.

581 See previous chapter.

582 BhP, X, (first half). 29. 14–15.

583 BhR, I. 7.

584 BhR, I. 8.

585 See Natyafastra ch.VI.

586 BhR, I. 9–10.

587 Vibhavanubhava vyabhicarisaÅ yogad rasanispattih. NF, VI. 32.

588 See Chapter 5.

589 BhR, I. 10.

590 It may be noted that Madhusudana is here exploiting the epistemological concept of vrtti-jñ ana to explain the experience of bhakti. Cf. Chapter 3.

591 BhR, I. 3.

592 See Chapters 3, 4 and 7.

593 Although Thomas A. Forsthoefel does not mention Madhusudana and his exposition on the experience of bhakti, his work on the epistemology of religious experience in the non-dualist context is very interesting.

594 See Chapters 2, 3 and 4 for explanation of the experience in deep sleep. 595 Auto-commentary on BhR I.13.

596 BhR, I. 13 and the autor’s self-commentary.

597 VKL, p. 65.

598 GGD, on BhG XVIII. 66.

599 AdS, p. 893.

600 AdS, pp. 894–5. ‘The word sayujya, however, indicates the state of difference.’ (Sayujya fabdastavat vibhaktatvabhavabhiprayaka).

601 BhR, I. 1. Self- annotation on it.

602 These are knowledge to distinguish between real and false experiences; total disinclination to any form of enjoyment; acquiring the mental stability and peace to follow the way of a righteous, and finally deep craving for salvation. See, Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I. C.U.P. Reprint 1969. pp. 489–90.

603 BhR, p. 4.

604 GGD on BhG IV. 10.

605 BhP, 1.7.10.

606 It may be noted that in his exposition of the stages, he corroborates everywhere his own viewpoint by apt quotations from the Bhagavata Puraja.

607 BhR, p. 79.

608 BhR, p. 63.

609 BhR, p. 116.

610 BhR, pp. 83–90.

611 BhR, p. 4. See GGD, Introductory verses 3–10, and S.K. Gupta (tr.), p. XIV.

612 BhP, 7.5.23–4.

613 BhR, p. 156. ‘Virahasahisjutatma pritivifesah-ratirnama.’

614 BhR, p. 116.

615 Satsandarbha (pritisandarbha), pp. 738 and 741.

616 Dhanyaloka, (kasi samskrit series), p. 38. 617 BhP, 3.25.25.

‘satam prasakgan-mama viryasaÅ vido bhavanti hrtkarjarasayanah kathah tajjosanadafvapavargavartmani fraddha-ratir-bhaktirajukramisyati’

618 BhP, 3.9.38.

619 BhP, 1.2.39.

620 BhP, 11.3.32–3.

621 BhP, 11.11.29–31.

622 BhP, 7.4.36–7.

623 BhP, 1.2.7. ‘Vasudeve Bhagavati bhaktiyogaprayojitah janayatyafu vairagyam jñ anañ ca yat ahaitukam.’

624 BhP, 10.31.4, 10.31.15, 10.32.2.

(a) ‘na khalu gopikanandano bhavan akhiladehinam-antaratmadrk’, etc.

(b) ‘atati yadbhavan anhi kananam trutiryugayate tvamapafyatam’, etc. (c)  ‘Tasamavirabhucchaurih’, etc.

625 BhP, 10.31.15 and BhR, p. 116.

626 BhP, 9.4.18–21.

627 BhP, 3.25.37; 11.9.21–3.

628 BhP, 10.19.16; 10.31.15; 10.29.9–11.

629 BhR, pp. 105 and 119.

630 BhR, p. 26.

631 See Yoga-sutra, I.15.

632 BhP, 10.29.15 and 7.1.29.

633 BhR, p. 121.

634 BhR, p. 137.

635 BhR, p. 121.

636 BhR, pp. 124–5. This means the sentiment of love (frngara) in separation (vipralambha) due to peeve (mana).

637 BhR, p. 127.

638 BhR, pp. 127–8.

639 BhR, p. 129.

640 BhR, p. 130.

641 See Ch. 6.

642 BhR, II. 29–30. 643 BhR, II. 59

644 BhR, II. 59–60. 645 BhR, II. 34.

646 BhR, II. 68–69.

647 BhR, II. 72.

648 BhRS, 1.2.131–52.

649 Kavya Prakasa, Poona, Bhandarka edition, pp. 474–5 and Dhanyaloka, Benaras edition, pp. 207–8.

650 Kavyaprakafa, p. 474.

651 Dhanyaloka, op.cit.

652 BhR, pp. 129, 130 and 134.

653 TaiU, 2.6. and 2.9.

654 BhR, pp. 35–7.

655 BhR, p. 168.

656 BhR, III. 4–5.

‘kavyarthanistha ratyadyah sthayinah santi laukikah tatbodhrnisthastvapare tatsama’pyalaukikah bodhya-nistha yathasvam te sukhaduhkhadi hetavah bodhrnisthastu sarve’pi sukhamatraika hetavah.’

657 BhR, III.9–10.

658 BhR, III. 7–9.

659 BhR, III.11.

660 BhR, III. 12. ‘Bhavatritaya-saÅ srsta sthayibhavavagahini samuhalambanatmaika jayata sattviki matis.’

661 BhR, III.12.

662 BhR, III.22.

‘nityaÅ sukhamabhivyaktaÅ “raso vai sah” iti fruteh pratitih svaprakafasya nirvikalpasukhatmika.’

663 The concluding verse 1 in GGD on BhG, XVIII.

664 GGD, on BhG, X. 42.

665 Note the pun in the expression ‘destroyer of Madhu’ which is also his own name.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sanskrit texts

Aitareya Upanisad (AiU), ed. Patrick Olivelle, The Early Upanisads: Annotated Text and Translation.

Bhagavata Puraja (BhP), with the commentary Bhavarthadipika by Fridhara Svami, ed. Pajdeya Ramateja Fastri, pub. Pajdita Radhemohana Pajdeya, Pajdita-pustakalaya, Varanasi 1963.

Brahmabindu Upanisad (BraBU), in Dr Paul Daussen, Upanishads des Veda, Leipzig 1897.

Brhadarajyaka Upanisad (BrAU), Olivelle, The Early Upanisads: Annotated Text and Translation.

Chandogya Upanisad (ChaU) with commentary by FaÅ karacarya, ed. Gambhirananda, Mayavati 1983.

Ifa Upanisad (IU), ed. Dr Sitanath Goswami, pub. Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Calcutta 1960. Katha Upanisad (KathaU), Anandasram Sanskrit Series No. 72, Poona 1915.

Kausitaki Upanisad (KauU), ed. Henk Bodewitz, Groningen Oriental Studies, vol. XVI Groningen 2002.

Kena Upanisad (KenU), Dr Sitanath Goswami, pub. Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Calcutta 1964.

Maha Narayja Upanisad (MNU), ed. Colonel G.A. Jacab, Bombay Sanskrit Series, Bombay 1887.

Majdukya Upanisad (MaU), Olivelle, The Early upanisads: Annotated Text and Translation.

Mujdaka Upanisad (MuU), Olivelle, The Early upanisads: Annotated Text and Translation.

Ramottaratapani Upanisad, The Vaisjava-Upanisads with the Commentary of Fri Upanisad-brahma-yogin, ed. Pandit A. Mahadeva Sastri, The Adyar Library Series No. 8, Second edition, Adyar Library, Madras 1953.

Fvetafvatara Upanisad (FveU), Olivelle, The Early upanisads: Annotated Text and Translation.

Taittiriya Upanisad (TaiU), Olivelle, The Early upanisads: Annotated Text and Translation.

Anandavardhana, Dhvanyaloka, A critical edition with Introduction, English translation and notes, by K. Krishnamoorthy, Karnataka University, Dharwar 1974.

Appaya Diksita, Siddhanta-lesa-saÅ graha (SlS), with an English translation by S.S. Suryanarayana Sastri, pub. Department of Indian Philosophy, University of Madras, Madras 1935–7.

Citsukhacarya, Tattva-pradipika, ed. Svamiyogindrananda, UdasinsaÅ skrtavidyalaya, Kafi (Varanasi) 1956.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citsukhacarya, Tattvapradipika (Citsukhi), with a commentary by Frimatpratyaksvarupa, translated with notes by Frimadudasinapravarasvami yogindrananda, pub. UdasinasaÅ skrtavidyalaya, Kafi (Varanasi) 1956.

Dharmarajadhvarindra, Vedantaparibhasa (VP), ed. K. Sambafivafasti, AnantafayanasaÅ skrtagranthavali, No. 93, Trivandrum 1928.

Jiva Gosvami, Sat-sandarbha with a commentary by Baladeva Vidyabhusaja and by Radhamohana Gosvami, ed. Fyamlala Gosvami 1957.

Madhusudana Sarasvati, Advaita-siddhi; with commentary and notes by Mm. Ananta Krsja Fastri Vedantavifarada, pub. Pandurang Jawaji, ‘Nirjaya-sagar’ Press, Second edition, Bombay 1937.

—— Advaita-siddhi, vol. 1–3, with Gurucandrika, ed. D. Srinivasachar, Government Oriental Library Publication, Mysore 1933–40.

—— Advaita-siddhi part one, The First Definition of Falsity, critically edited with commentary and Bengali translation, by Fri Yogendranatha TarkasaÅ khyavedantatirtha with an introduction Rajendranath Ghosh (general editor), pub. Friksetrapal Ghosh, Kalikata 1931.

—— Advaita-siddhi, (Chapter 1, the section on the five definitions of avidya and the conclusive remarks of the author), text translated and explained by Karuna Bhattacharya, ICPR Translation of Indian Classics, pub. The secretary Indian Council of Philosophical Research, New Delhi 110002 1992’ ISBN 81-85636-00-1.

—— Advaita-ratna-raksaja, ed. with commentary and notes by Mm. Ananta Krsja Fastri Vedantavifarada, pub. Pandurang Jawaji, ‘Nirjaya-sagar’ Press, Second edition, Bombay 1937.

—— Advaita-siddhi, Chapter 1, with the commentary Balabodhini by Mm. DrYogendranath Bagchi D.Litt., Taerka-saykhya-vedantatirtha, ed. Dr Sitansusekhar Bagchi, M.A., LL.B., D.Litt., vol. 1, part 1 and 2, pub. Tara Publications, Varanasi 1971.

—— Ananda-mandakini, Kavyamala series.

—— Bhagavata-puraja-prathama-floka-vyakhya, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series No. 411, The Harililamrtam by Fri Bopadeva, with a Commentary by Fri Madhusudana Sarasvati and Frimad Bhagavata Purajam (1st floka) with the ParamahaÅ sapriya commentary, by the same commentator, ed. with introduction etc. by Sahityopadhyaya Parajuli Pandit Devidatta Upadhyaya, Benares 1933.

—— Bhakti-rasayanam, with the author’s won commentary on the first chapter, edited, translated into Bengali and with a commentary on the second and third chapter by Mm. Friyukta Durgacaraja SaÅ khya-Vedantatirtha, published by Frisurendranatha Bhattacarya kalikata Bengali era 1340.

—— Gita-gudhartha-dipika, a commentary on the Bhagavadgita, ed. Friyukta Nalinikanta Brahma, M.A. P.R.S. PhD, translated into Bengali and with a commentary by Pajdita Friyukta Bhutanatha Saptatirtha, pub. Krishna Brothers, Kalikata Bengali era 1345 (1937).

—— Hari-lila-vyakhya, ed. Ifvara Chandra Sastri and Haridasa Vidyavagisa, Calcutta Oriental Series 3, Calcutta 1920.

—— Ifvara-pratipatti-prakafa , Anantafayanagranthavalih: No. 73, Trivendrum 1921.

—— Mahimna-stotra-tika, in Mahimnah-stotram tatha Karpuradi-stotram, (by Puspadanta and Mahakala respectively), ed. Frimadgurunatha Vidyanidhi Bhattacarya, pub. Sanskrita Book Depot, Kalikata 1945.

—— SaÅ ksepa-fariraka-sara-saÅ graha, Kafi fanskrit series called Haridasa-saÅ skrtagranthamala 18, Vedanta section No. 4, pub. Jai Krishna Dass Gupta, Vidya Vilas Press Banares City 1924.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

—— Sidhanta-bindu, P.C. Divanji, (ed. and tr.), Gaekwad’s Oriental Series vol. LXIV. Baroda 1933.

—— Siddhanta-bindu, Sanskrit text, ed. and commented by V.S. Abhyankar, Second edition, ed. K.V. Abhyankar, Bhandarkar oriental Research Institue, Poona 1962. Government Oriental Series, Class A, No. 2.

—— Siddhanta-bindu, ed. T. Sastri, Kasi Sanskrit series called Haridasa SaÅ skrtagranthamala 65, Vedanta Section, 8, with two commentaries, Gaudabrahmananda’s Nyaya-ratnavai and Narayaja Tirtha’s Laghuvyakhya, pub. At Chowkhamba Sanskrit series Office, Benares City 1928.

—— Siddhanta-bindu, English translation P.M. Modi, with a foreword by Zimmerman, pub. Vohra, Allahabad 1985.

—— Vedanta-kalpa-latika, ed. Ramajñ a Pajdeya Vyakarajopadhyaya, Sarasvati bhavana text no. 3. pub. Government Sanskrit Library, Benarea 1920.

Mammata, Kavyaprakafa, ed. Sivaprasad Bhattacharya with Fridhara’s Commentary, Calcutta Sanskrit College Research series, vol. 1 and 2, Calcutta 1959 and 1961.

Narada-bhakti-sutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love, with translation by His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta swami Prabhupada and his disciples, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Los Angelis London etc. 1991.

Padmapada, Pañ capadika with two commentaries and Pañ capadikavivaraja with two commentaries, Madras Government Oriental Series, No. CLV; ed. Sri. S. Frirama Fastri and Fri. S.R. Krishnamurthi Fastri; Government Oriental Manuscript Library, Madras 1958.

Prakafananda Yati (Sarasvati), Vedanta-siddhanta-muktavali (VSM), with English translation and notes by Arthur Venis, M.A. (Balliol College), Gokuldas Sanskrit Series, No. 4, Chaukhamba Orientalia, Second edition, Varanasi 1975.

Rupa Gosvami, with commentaries Durgamasangamani                  by Jiva Gosvami,

Artharatnalpadipika by Mukundadasa Gosvami and Bhaktisara-pradarfini by

Vifvanatha Cakravarti and Bengali translation by Haridasa Dasa, Second edition, Kalikata 1961.

—— Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhuh (BhRS), vol. I with Sanskrta Text in Devanagari script, English transliteration, English translation with comments by Tridajdi Swami Bhakti Hrdaya Bon Maharaj, Rector Institue of Oriental Philosophy, pub. Institue of Oriental Philosophy, Vrindaban 1965.

Fajdilya-bhakti-sutra, with a Sanskrit commentary and Hindi translation by Muralidharafarma rajavaidya, pub. Kalyana Mumbai 1916.

Friharsa, Khajdana-khajda-khadya, ed. Frikrsjapantafastri Sahityacarya and Frigovindanarahari-vaijapurakara, M.A. Nyaya-vedantacarya, tr. into Hindi by Late Pandita Fricajdiprasadasukula, pub. Acyuta granthamala Office, Kafi (Varanasi) 1962.

Frimadvidyarajya Muni, Pañ cadafi with commentary by Ramakrsja and an introduction by FrimatparamahaÅ sa parivrajakajakacarya mahefvarananda girimahamajdalefvara, ed. Narayaja Rama acarya ‘Kavyatirtha, Seventh edition, pub. Nirnayasagara, Mumbai 1949.

Vadarayana, Brahma-sutra (BS) with the commentary, (bhasya) by FaÅ kara and the commentary, (Bhamati ) by Vacaspati Mifra’s, ed. Anantakrsja Fastri, Nirnayasagar publications, Mumbai 1938.

Vyasatirtha, Nyayamrtam, ed. Prof. K.T. Pandurangi, pub. Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Foundation, Bangalore 1994.

Yoga Philosophy of Patañ jali: Containing his Yoga aphorisms with Vyasa’s commentary in Sanskrit and a translation with annotations including many suggestions for the practice

BIBLIOGRAPHY

of Yoga, by SaÅ khya-Yogacharya Swami Hariharananda Arajya, rendered into English by P.N. Mukerji, C.B.E.R.B.M.A. Published by SUNY, Albany, NY, 1983.

Yogavasistha Ramayaja, Hindi and Sanskrit, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Pratisthana, Varanasi 1988.

Works in English

Ali, M. Athar, The Perception of India in Akbar and Abu’l Fazl, in ed. Irfan Habib, Akbar And His India, Oxford India Paperbacks, OUP Oxford New York, third impression 2002, pp. 215–24.

Arajya, Swami Hariharananda, Samkhya-yogacharya, Yoga Philosophy of Patañ jai: Containing his Yoga Aphorisms with Vyasa’s commentary in Sanskrit and a translation with annotations including many suggestions for the practice of Yoga, Rendered into English by, P. N. Mukerji, C.B.E. R.B. M.A, New edition by SUNY, Albany 1983.

Bartley, C.J., The Theology of Ramanuja: Realism and Religion, Routledge Curzon Taylor & Francis Group London 2002, ISBN 0–7007–1459–6.

Benson, James, FaÅ kara Bhatta’s Family Chronicle: The GadhivaÅ favarjana , paper in

The Pandit: Traditional Scholarship in India, ed. Axel Michaels, Festschrift Parameswara Aithal, South Asian Studies No. XXXVIII, South Asia Institute, New Delhi Branch, Heidelberg University 2001.

Carney, Gerald. Rasa Theology: The Drama of Divine Love, in Vaisjavism: Contemporary Scholars Discuss the Gaudiya Tradition, ed. Steven J. Rosen, FOLK Books New York 1992, pp. 295–303.

Chari, S.M. Srinivasa, Vaisjavism: Its Philosophy, Theology and Religious Discipline, Motilal Banarasidass Delhi reprint 2000, ISBN 81–208–1098–8.

Comans, Michael, The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta: A Study of Gaudapada, Fakkara, Surefvara and Padmapada; Delhi 2000, ISBN 81–208–1722–2.

Dasgupta, Surendranath, A History of Indian Philosophy, vol. III, CUP (reprint) Cambridge 1968.

De, Sushil Kumar, Early History of the Vaisjava Faith and Movement in Bengal, Second edition, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta 1961.

Deutsch, Eliot and J.A.B. van Buitenen, A Source Book of Advaita Vedanta, The University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu 1971.

Forsthoefel, Thomas A., Knowing Beyond Knowledge, Ashgate Publishing Company, UK and USA 2002, ISBN 0–7546–0625–2.

Gerow, Edwin, Indian Poetics, Otto Harrassowitz Wies Baden 1977.

Gupta, Bina, Perceiving in Advaita Vedanta: Epistemological Analysis and Interpretation; Delhi 1995, ISBN 81–208–1296–9.

Gupta, Sanjukta, From Bhakti to Prapatti – The Theory of Grace in the Pañ caratra System, Sanskrit and World Culture, SCHR.OR. 18, Berlin 1986, pp. 537–42.

—— Bhakti of Madhusudana Sarasvati, in Prajnajyoti: Prof. Dr Gopikamohan Bhattacharya Commemoration Volume, eds, Prof. Dr Debabrata Sen Sharma and Dr Manabendu Banarjee, pub. Nirmal Bose Agency, Kurukshetra (India) 1991, pp. 233–43.

Gupta, Sisir Kumar, Madhusudana Sarasvati on The Bhagavad Gita: Being an English translation of his Commentary Gudhartha Dipika, pub. Motolal Banarasidass Delhi Varanasi Patna, Delhi 1977.

Haberman, David, Acting as a Way of Salvation: A Study of Raganuga Bhakti, OUP, New York, 1988.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hardy, Friehelm, Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsja devotion in South India, Delhi Oxford University Press, Oxford New York 1983.

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Ingalls, Daniel H.H., Materials For The Study of Navya-nyaya Logic, Harvard Oriental Series 40, First Indian Reprint, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi 1988.

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Olivelle, Patrick, Upanisad: A New Translation. World Classics OUP Oxford, New York 1996.

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Works in Bengali

Fastri, Dr Afutosa Vedanta Darfana – Advaitavada, Part 1, Second edition, Part 2, and Part 3, Calcutta University publication, Calcutta University Press, Calcutta 1942, 1949 and 1961.

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INDEX

Abhasavada 84–5, 89, 91

Abhava (vilaksaja, pratiyogi) 15, 18,

19, 35, 47, 68

Abhavopadanajñ ana 15 Abhidha 56

Abhihitanvayavada 55

Adharma 52

Adhikaraja 82

Adhisthana 14, 29, 48, 49, 83,

87, 112

Adhyasikatadatmya 27, 49

Adrsta 23, 111 Ahamartha 17, 22, 107–8

AhaÅ kara 48, 96, 98, 107–8

Ahampratyaya 94

AkaÅ ksa 56, 58–9 Akhajdakara-citta-vrtti 83, 126

Akhajdartha 4, 53–5, 57–9, 79, 125 Akhyativada 38

Alambana 94, 125

Alambanavibhava 127, 141 Anandabodhacarya 28, 33

Anekajiva-vada 84

Anirvacaniya 15–16, 28, 38, 42,

102, 106

Anirvacaniya khyati 37 Anirvacyatva 42–3 Anrta 24

Antahkaraja 17, 25, 27, 75, 81, 87,

96, 107–9

Anubhuti 61, 99, 108

Anuvyavasaya 60

Anvitabhidhana-vada 55

Anyonyabhava 82

Amurta 106, 109–11 Appaya Diksita 87

Apurva 75

Arambha-vada 100, 102

Arthantara 32

Arthapatti 25, 43, 47

Arthavadafruti 66, 76

Asat 28, 33, 38

Asa-khyativada 38

AsaÅ ga 49–50

AsaÅ sakti 116, 117

Afraya 4, 26, 32, 44, 49, 52, 86,

108, 135, 141

Atyantabhava 23, 36, 100

Avacchedaka 86–7

Avaccheda-vada 86, 91 Avantara 69

Avaraja(fakti) 105, 118

Avasthajñ ana 51, 112

Avidyalefa 118

Avidyavrtti 16, 25, 40–1, 46, 48,

50, 60, 63, 93–4, 112

Avyakta 87, 106, 110–11

Bhagavata Dharma 3, 125, 134, 135

Bhaktibhumika 132, 135

Bhaktivrtti 125, 126

Bhamati School 4, 69, 86, 116

Bhavabhakti 122–4

Bhavana 127

Bhaya 137, 140

Bhedaratna 5

Bhedasiddhi 5

Bhrama 3, 7, 41

Bhramajñ ana 33

Brahmananda Sarasvati 6

Caitanya (consciousness) 28, 36, 45, 65,

86, 88, 94, 117, 127

Caitanya (Frikrsja Caitanya) 1, 119,

121, 126

Carvakas 94

INDEX

Catalogus Catalogorum 7

Citsukhacarya, Citsukha, Citsukhi 3, 14,

32, 37, 54–5, 57, 91–2

Dana-vira 138 Danotsaha 138 Dasya 137 Daya 138

Dayavira 138

Dayotsaha 138 Defa 65, 94

Dharma 52

Dharmarajadhvarindra 107

Dharmavira 138

Dharmotsaha 138

Dhvani 60

Dik 106

Divanji, P.C. 5, 10 Dosa 33–4, 62–3

Drk 65, 100, 106

Drsti-srsti-vada 88–9, 91, 98, 111 Drfya 35, 36, 84, 95, 100, 106

Drfyatva 28, 30, 34, 95

Eka-jiva-vada 4, 6, 84, 88–93

Gakgefa 3 Garva 107

Gaudiya Vaisjava 12, 120, 125

Gautama-sutra Vrtti 5 Gopi 124, 136

Gopinath Kaviraj 5

Guja 81, 95, 110, 139

Harsa 137–8

Hirajyagarbha 109–11

Hrdayagranthi 107

Irsya 137

Jadatva 28, 36

Jagannatha Pajdita 5 Jagrat 96, 112, 117

Jahadajahatsvartha 78

Jayatirtha 12

Jivabhasa 87, 88, 91, 93 Jiva Gosvami 6–7, 120, 122–4

Jivanmukta 16, 111, 117–18, 131

Jñ anabhasa 63

Jñ anabhumika (steps of Yogic stance)

115–17

Jñ analaksaja-sannikarsa 38–9

Kala 65, 94, 106

Kalpataru 35, 67, 69

Kama 137, 140

Kapala 32–3, 101

Karaja 76, 105 Karman 16, 111, 117 Kartrtva 96, 104 Karya 24

Karyakarajasambandha 140

Khajdanakhajdakhadya 90

Kriyafakti 48, 61, 69, 106,

107, 109

Krodha 137

Kubjafakti 56

Laksaja 55–6, 58–9, 66, 78 Laksyartha 59, 78

Lisgafarira 109, 111

Maddhvacarya 5

Maddhva Vaisjava 2, 3, 66, 119

Mahabhava 135 Mahavakya 4, 76–7, 115 Manana 47, 115–16, 123, 130

Manasapratyaksa 60

Majdana Mifra 2, 3

Manogati 120, 125, 128

Maya-vada 6

MimaÅ sa School 51, 55, 115

Mula 51

Murta 106, 110

Narada-bhakti-sutra 121

Navadha-bhakti 131, 133

Navya-nyaya School 1–5, 8, 12,

38, 100

Nididhyasana 47, 115–16, 123

Nidravrtti 47 Nimitta-karaja 33

Nirvikalpaka-pratyaksa 53

Nifcaya 107

NrsiÅ haframa 6

Nyayamakaranda 3

Nyayamrta 11–12, 119

Padartha 58

Padarthabhavini 116–17

Pañ cabhuta 109

Pañ cadafi 5, 72, 91

Pañ capadika 29

Pañ capraja 107

174

Pañ cikarajaprakriya 110 Paramarfa 20

Paramarthika 30, 39, 83 Paranurakti 121

Paravairagya 132

Pariccheda 65, 94

Paricchinna 28, 36

Parijamavada 100–2

Parijamikaraja 102–3

Paroksavrtti 52 Pafupata 100

Phalavyapyatva 71, 73

Prabhakara 55, 72

Pragabhava 18–20, 22–4, 33, 94,

100, 101

Prajñ a 98

Prakafananda Sarasvati 6, 105

Pralaya 111

Pramajñ ana 18, 33, 45–6, 95–6 Pramaja 21, 34 Prameya 48, 52

Pramiti 48

Prarabdha 16, 111, 117–18 Prasaktapratisedha 74 Pratibhakajñ ana 60

Pratibhasika 29, 39, 83, 89

Pratibimba-vada 3, 84–5, 91

Pratipadika 55, 57 Pratiyogin 19, 68, 74

Pratiyogitavacchedaka 19

Priti 123–4, 138–40 Priyata 124

Purandaracarya 4

Purusottama 8, 106, 120

Raganuga bhakti 123, 140

Ragatmika bhakti 123, 140

Rajas 41, 106, 109–10, 139–40

Rajendra Ghose 5

Ramajñ a Farma Pajdeya 5

Rasa 124, 125, 127–8, 130, 134–5,

137–8, 140–2

Rasagakgadhara 7

Rasalila 136

Rati 123–4, 128, 136–8

Raudra 139

Raudrabhayanaka 139–40

Rupa Gosvami 6–7, 120, 122, 124

Fabda 54, 55

Fabdabodha 55

Sadhanabhakti 122–5

Sadhya 21, 23, 34, 36, 76, 121, 129

INDEX

Sagujabhakti 43, 69

Faiva School 60

Sakhya 137

Saksi 13, 18, 21–2, 25–7, 35,

40, 45, 49

Saksijñ ana 18, 20–1, 28, 45, 59

Sakyasambandha 56, 59

Salokya 118, 130–1 Samanyabhava 19–20, 24

Samanyalaksaja pratyasatti 19 FaÅ kara Mifra 5 SaÅ khya 1

Samksepafariraka 4, 25

SaÅ sara 107

SaÅ skara 20–1, 32, 93, 97,

118, 127

Samya 118

Fajdilya-bhakti-sutra 121

Sannidhi 58

Fanta 139–40 Sarupya 118

Sarvajñ atma Muji 3–4, 8, 10, 26, 48, 85,

91, 100, 105

Sattapatti 116–17

Sattva 29–30, 41, 43, 81, 95, 106,

109–10, 117, 139 Sautrantika 38

Savikalpa-jñ ana 35, 53

Savikalpa-samadhi 117

Sayanacarya 5

SiddhantalefasaÅ graha 87

Smrtivrtti 47, 80

Sneha 137–8

Foka 137–9

Fraddha 122, 124, 133, 135

Fravaja 114–16

Fribhasya 41

Friharsa 2, 82

Srkgara 128, 137, 139–41

Srstidrsti-vada 88

Sthayibhava 127–8, 137–42

Fubheccha 116

Fujya-vada 102

Surefvaracarya 3

Susupti 20–1, 78, 93–4, 96–8,

112, 117

Svaprakafa 60, 72

Taijasa 96–7

Tamasa 41, 97, 106, 110, 139–40

Tamoguja 47, 112, 139 Tanmatra 108

Tapaka 137–8 Tattvacintamaji 3 Tattvapradipika 23–4

Tattvika 29, 76 Tula 86

Turyaga 116–17

Upadhi 15–16, 75, 78, 85–7, 91, 111

Upahita 34, 60, 85, 87, 92

Upajivya 79

Upalaksaja 16, 36, 72, 86–7 Uparaga 53

Upasana 67, 69–70, 76, 120, 123, 126

Vacaspati Mifra 3–4, 26, 42, 49, 51 Vacyartha 59

Vaibhasika 38

Vaidhi bhakti 123

Vaiklavya 137

Vaifesika 1–3

Vaisjava School 120, 134 Vakyartha 58

Vartika 3, 22, 49–50, 85, 105

Vasana 38, 97, 112–13, 127

Vafikarakhya vairagya 137

Vastu 64–5, 94

Vedanta-siddhanta-muktavali 87

INDEX

Vibhatsa 139–40

Vicaraja 116 Videhamukti 117

Vijñ anavadin 38

Vikalpavrtti 47–8

Viksepa 14, 90, 105, 118

Viparyayavrtti 47

Virat 110

Visaya 4, 15, 26–7, 86

Visayata 16 Vifesya 34, 78

Vifistadvaita-vada 80 Vifva 96–7

Vifvanatha Nyayapancanana 5

Vivaraja 3–4, 7, 21–2, 29–31, 37, 49–50,

85, 97–8, 105, 116, 129

Vivarta 100, 102–3

Vrttijñ ana 15, 18, 25, 28, 44–5, 71

Vrttivyapya 35 Vyabhicaribhava 127, 137, 141

Vyasaraja 41, 66, 71, 83, 102, 104–5

Vyavaharayogyata 73

Vyavaharika 29–30, 76, 80, 83, 86, 89 Vytirekidrstanta 74

Yogavasistha 116–17 Yogyata 58–9

176

 

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