From the History of Law Systems

Part I

Неопределенные времена (Indefinite Tenses)

		Present	Past	Future
Утвердительная форма	Множ. Единств. число число	I write You write He She writes It We write You write They write	I wrote You wrote He She wrote It We wrote You wrote They wrote	I shall write You will write He She will write It We shall write You will write They will write
Вопросительная форма	Множ. Единств. число число	Do I write? Do you write? he Does she write? it Do we write? Do you write? Do they write?	Did I write? Did you write? he Did she write? it Did we write? Did you write? Did they write?	Shall I write? Will you write? he Will she write? it Shall we write? Will you write? Will they write?
Отрицательная Форма	Множ. Единств. число число	I do not write You do not write He She does not write It We do not write You do not write They do not write	I did not write You did not write He She did not write It We did not write You did not write They did not write	I shall not write You will not write He She will not write It We shall not write You will not write They will not write

Do not - don’t

Does not – doesn’t

Did not – didn’t

Shall not – shan’t

Will not – won’t

Употребление времен группы Indefinite

Present Indefinite	1. Для выражения обычного или регулярно повторяющегося действия. 2. Для выражения будущего действия в придаточных обстоятельственных предложениях времени и условия.	1. We take our examinations twice a year. 2. They often go to the cinema. 1. If you finish your work early ring me up. 2. When you come we shall go to see our friends.
Past Indefinite	1. Для обозначения действия, совершившегося в прошлом. 2. Для выражения ряда последовательных действий.	1. I saw him two days ago. 2. In winter we went skating. 1. In the morning I got at 7, took my breakfast and went to the Institute.
Future Indefinite	1. Для выражения действия, которое совершится в будущем. Примечание: to be going, to be about являются эквивалентами будущего времени	1. They will come soon. 2. In summer we’ll have our holidays. 1. I'm going to enter the Institute. 2. He is about to enter the University.

Упр. 1. Запомните слова-сигналы, которые подсказывают, что сказуемое надо употреблять в:

Present Indefinite – usually, always, every day, as a rule, sometimes, often, rarely (seldom);

Past Indefinite – yesterday, last week (month, year), two days ago, in May, on Sunday, in 1990;

Future Indefinite – tomorrow, tonight, next week (year, month), in a day (через день).

Чтение окончания – (e)s в 3-м лице единственного числа

После глухих согласных	После гласных и звонких согласных	После –s, -z, -ss, -ch, -sh, -x
[s]	[z]	[iz]
He looks He talks	He wonders He rides	He passes He teaches

Запомните исключения:

Идти to go – he goes [gouz]

Делать to do – he does [dÙ z]

Говорить to say – he says [sez]

Упр. 2. Назовите формы, которые примут данные глаголы в Present, Past, Future Indefinite:

Например : To prosecute:

Present Simple – prosecute, prosecutes;

Past Simple – prosecuted;

Future Simple – shall/will prosecute;

To cross-examine, to imprison, to fine, to repeal, to suspend, to punish, to transfer, to order, to incur, to supervise, to guard, to remand, to reduce, to increase, to trespass, to legislate, to mortgage, to claim, to divorce, to impose, to commit, to conspire, to defame, to discharge, to impede, to kidnap, to remit, to ratify, to release.

Упр. 3. Прочитайте следующие глаголы в 3-ем лице единственного числа:

Обратите внимание на правильное чтение окончаний.

He/ She convicts, murders, robs, attempts, controls, investigates, sues, commits, abuses, injures, issues, deters, detains, questions, charges, releases, breaches, prosecutes, alleges, rapes, witnesses, sentences, suspects, defends, presumes, testifies, proves, judges.

Упр. 4. Прочитайте следующие правильные глаголы в Past Indefinite Form, обращая внимание на правильное чтение суффикса –ed.

-ed

после глухих согласных он передает звук t

после звонких и гласных – d

после t, d - id

Convicted, murdered, robed, attempted, controlled, investigated, sued, committed, abused, injured, issued, deterred, detained, questioned, charged, released, breached, prosecuted, alleged, raped, witnessed, sentenced, suspected, defended, presumed, testified, proved, judged.

Упр. 5. Переведите предложения, учитывая грамматическое время в них:

1. Some researchers conclude that IQ is an even more important predictor of criminality than is either race or social class. 2. You will give witness on behalf of an accused person. 3. The Government took a number of measures to strengthen the criminal justice system. 4. The police prevent and detect crime. 5. The new law will come into force next month. 6. The police suspected him of a crime. 7. He acts as a prosecuting lawyer. 8. Students’ violence resulted in violent clashes with the police. 9. Mr. Pratt is a persistent offender. 10. The policeman put the offender to the detention center.

Упр. 6. Измените грамматическое время предложений с Present Indefinite на Past Indefinite и Future Indefinite. Отразите разницу в переводе:

1. A solicitor prepares legal documents. 2. Mr. Johnes acts as counsel for the prosecution.3. The maximum penalty for this crime is 10 years’ imprisonment. 4. The witness is glad to help the accused. 5. Two witnesses testify against her and one in her favor. 6. The judge gives him a suspended sentence. 7. They consult their lawyer before sending in their tax return. 8. The jury acquits him of all charges.

Упр. 7. Сделайте предложения отрицательными и вопросительными (общий и специальный вопросы):

1. Jane saw a policeman detaining an offender.

2. There was no question of sending her to prison.

3. The law prohibits men from selling narcotics.

4. I beg you to inform of the details of the case.

5. Everyone wished the judge to start proceedings as soon as possible.

6. Central and local governments finance the police authorities.

7. They will release as many uniformed police officers as possible for operational duties.

8. The court sentenced Mr. Hillard to three years of imprisonment.

9. The jury will hear the cross-examining.

10. The defendant prefers to be discharged at once.

Упр. 8. Переведите на английский язык:

1. а) Адвокат просит судью обратить внимание на эти детали.

б) Адвокат попросил судью обратить внимание на эти детали.

в) Адвокат попросит судью обратить внимание на эти детали.

2. а) Я настаиваю на отмене судебного решения.

б) Я настаивал на отмене судебного решения.

в) Я буду настаивать на отмене судебного решения.

3. а) У Вас нет права допрашивать этого человека.

б) У Вас не было права допрашивать этого человека.

в) У Вас не будет права допрашивать этого человека.

4. а) Судья задает эти вопросы каждому обвиняемому.

б) Судья задал несколько вопросов обвиняемому.

в) Судья задаст несколько вопросов обвиняемому.

5. а) Он требует рассказать ему всю правду.

б) Он потребовал рассказать ему всю правду.

в) Он потребует рассказать ему всю правду.

Упр. 9. Прочитайте текст:

The Birth of Law

Rules and laws – and the conventions or customs from which they are descended – have been a part of human life since our ancestors first began to live in large and settled groups. But our knowledge is vague of laws that were in effect before the invention of writing in about 3500 B.C. The earliest known legal text was written by Ur-Nammu, a king of Mesopotamian city of Ur, in about 2100 B.C. It dealt largely with compensation for bodily injuries, and with the penalties for witchcraft and runaway slaves.

Упр.10. Скажите, соответствуют ли утверждения содержанию текста:

1. Laws appeared when ancient people began to live in settled groups.

2. We know a lot about laws that were in effect before 3500 B.C.

3. Ur-Nammu was the king of Mesopotamian city of Ur.

4. He was the author of the first legal text known to us.

5. The text of the code concerned compensation for bodily injuries, and penalties for witchcraft and runaway slaves.

Упр. 11. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Why is it difficult to judge about the earliest laws?

2. Where did the fist known legal text appear?

3. Who invented it?

4. What issues did the early laws emphasize?

Упр. 12. Переведите на английский язык:

Законы произошли из обычаев и традиций, когда люди стали жить в больших и оседлых группах. Мы знаем о содержании законов, которые произошли после изобретения письменности примерно в 3500 году до н.э. Ур-Наму, правитель города Ур в Месопотамии, создал первый известный нам текст правового содержания примерно в 2100 году до н.э. Первые законы касались компенсаций за нанесение телесных повреждений и наказаний за колдовство и побег рабов.

Laws of Babylon

Упр. 13. Прочитайте следующие слова:

1. edict – указ;

2. justice – правосудие;

3. amendment – поправка к законопроекту;

4. common law – общее право;

5. penalty – наказание;

6. accusation – обвинение; обвинительное заключение;

7. false testimony – ложные свидетельские показания;

8. rates – местные налоги;

Code of Hammurabi, collection of the laws and edicts of the Babylonian king Hammurabi, and the earliest legal code known in its entirety. A copy of the code, engraved on a block of black basalt that is 2.25 m (7 ft 5 in) in height, was unearthed by a team of French archaeologists at Sū sa, Iraq, formerly ancient Elam, during the winter of 1901 to 1902. The block, broken in three pieces, has been restored and is now in the Louvre in Paris.

COMPOSITION OF THE CODE

The divine origin of the written law is emphasized by a bas-relief (барельеф) in which the king is depicted receiving the code from the sun god, Shamash. The quality most usually associated with this god is justice. The code is set down in horizontal columns of cuneiform (клинообразными знаками, в ассирийских надписях) writing: 16 columns of text on the obverse side and 28 on the reverse. The text begins with a prologue that explains the extensive restoration of the temples and religious cults of Babylonia and Assyria. The code itself, composed of 28 paragraphs, seems to be a series of amendments to the common law of Babylonia, rather than a strict legal code. It begins with direction for legal procedure and the statement of penalties for unjust accusations, false testimony, and injustice done by judges; then follow laws concerning property rights, loans, deposits, debts, domestic property, and family rights. The sections covering personal injury indicate that penalties were imposed for injuries sustained through unsuccessful operations by physicians and for damages caused by neglect in various trades. Rates are fixed in the code for various forms of service in most branches of trade and commerce.

Упр. 14. Переведите на английский язык следующие словосочетания:

Правосудие, поправка к законопроекту, наказания, несправедливое обвинение, ложные показания, судья, увечья, ущерб, местные налоги.

Упр. 15. Подставьте подходящие по смыслу слова в предложения:

1. Code of Hammurabi is the full earliest ….

2. It was written by … in about 1758 B.C.

3. A team of French … rediscovered it at ….

4. The code … of 28 ….

5. The code itself seems to be….

6. The code covered the statements of ….

7. The block is now in the … in Paris.

Упр. 16. Составьте предложения из разрозненных слов:

1. A King, Hammurabi, of, made up, Babylonia, ancient, codes.

2. Were, punishments, the code, under, often, harsh.

3. The death penalty, accusers, murderers, false, thieves, faced, even, and.

4. Took accounts of, the new, the circumstances, of the offender, the offence, and, laws.

Упр. 17. Задайте вопросы к выделенным словам:

1. The code composed of 28 paragraphs.

2. It begins with direction for legal procedure.

3. Hannurabi’s laws represented an advance on earlier tribal customs, because the penalty could not be harder than the crime.

4. The French archeologists discovered the block with Hammurabi’s code amid the ruins of the Persian city of Susa.

5. A team of the French archeologists unearthed it during the winter of 1901 to 1902.

Упр. 18. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. How was a copy of the code engraved on a block of black basalt rediscovered?

2. What spheres of human life did code of Hammurabi cover?

3. Why do you think Hammurabi decided to have his laws carved into a block?

Упр.19. а) Переведите текст.

б) Назовите русские эквиваленты для выделенных слов и словосочетаний в тексте.

The Legal Heritage of Greece and Rome

The ancient Greeks were among the first to develop a concept of law that separated everyday law from religious beliefs. Before the Greeks most civilizations attributed their laws to their gods or goddesses. Instead, the Greeks believed that laws were made by the people for the people.

In the seventh century B.C., Draco* drew up Greece's first written code of laws. Under Draco's code death was the punishment for most offences. Thus, the term draconian usually applies to extremely harsh measures.

Several decades passed before Solon - poet, military hero, and ultimately Athens' lawgiver - devised a new code of laws. Trial by jury, an ancient Greek tradition was retained, but enslaving debtors was prohibited as were most of the harsh punishments of Draco's code. Under Solon's law citizens of Athens were eligible to serve in the assembly and courts were established in which they could appeal government decisions.

What the Greeks may have contributed to the Romans was the concept of 'natural law'. In essence, natural law was based on the belief that certain basic principles are above the laws of a nation. These principles arise from the, nature of people. The concept of natural law and the development of the first true legal system had a profound effect on the modern world.

*Draco ['dreikou] Драконт (т.ж. Трахонт), афинский законодатель

Упр. 20. Заполните таблицу соответствующим глаголом или существительным. Переведите полученные пары:

Verb Noun

To attribute

belief

punishment

To develop

offence

To separate

decision

To apply

government

To prohibit

To serve

To establish

To appeal

Упр. 20. Назовите утверждения, которые не соответствуют содержанию текста:

1. The ancient Romans were the first who separated everyday law from religious beliefs.

2. Greek civilization attributed their laws to their gods and goddess.

3. Draco made up Greece’s first written code of laws.

4. Draco’s code was drawn up in the seventh century A.D.

5. Under Draco’s code capital punishment was the penalty for most offences.

6. Now when we say “draconian measures” we mean “extremely light measures”.

7. Trial by jury is an ancient Greek tradition.

8. Draco established courts of appeal.

9. Solon refused the idea of trial by jury.

10. The concept of ‘natural law’ had a great effect on the modern world.

Упр. 21. Сделайте следующие предложения отрицательными:

1. The ancient Romans were the first who separated everyday law from religious beliefs.

2. Greek civilization attributed their laws to their gods and goddess.

3. Draco’s code was drawn up in the seventh century A.D.

4. Draco established courts of appeal.

5. Solon refused the idea of trial by jury.

Упр. 22. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. Who developed the concept of law?

2. What is the idea of this concept?

3. When did Draco draw up the first written code of laws?

4. What does the term “draconian” mean?

5. What tradition did Solon retain?

Упр. 23. Спросите следующее по-английски:

1. Где жил Драконт?

2. Когда он составил первый греческий свод законов?

3. Каким было наказание за большинство правонарушений?

4. Почему Солон запретил такое наказание, как порабощение должников?

5. Применили ли древние римляне идею естественного права.

UNIT 5

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